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Guru Granth Sahib
Composition, Arrangement & Layout
ਜਪੁ | Jup
ਸੋ ਦਰੁ | So Dar
ਸੋਹਿਲਾ | Sohilaa
ਰਾਗੁ ਸਿਰੀਰਾਗੁ | Raag Siree-Raag
Gurbani (14-53)
Ashtpadiyan (53-71)
Gurbani (71-74)
Pahre (74-78)
Chhant (78-81)
Vanjara (81-82)
Vaar Siri Raag (83-91)
Bhagat Bani (91-93)
ਰਾਗੁ ਮਾਝ | Raag Maajh
Gurbani (94-109)
Ashtpadi (109)
Ashtpadiyan (110-129)
Ashtpadi (129-130)
Ashtpadiyan (130-133)
Bara Maha (133-136)
Din Raen (136-137)
Vaar Maajh Ki (137-150)
ਰਾਗੁ ਗਉੜੀ | Raag Gauree
Gurbani (151-185)
Quartets/Couplets (185-220)
Ashtpadiyan (220-234)
Karhalei (234-235)
Ashtpadiyan (235-242)
Chhant (242-249)
Baavan Akhari (250-262)
Sukhmani (262-296)
Thittee (296-300)
Gauree kii Vaar (300-323)
Gurbani (323-330)
Ashtpadiyan (330-340)
Baavan Akhari (340-343)
Thintteen (343-344)
Vaar Kabir (344-345)
Bhagat Bani (345-346)
ਰਾਗੁ ਆਸਾ | Raag Aasaa
Gurbani (347-348)
Chaupaday (348-364)
Panchpadde (364-365)
Kaafee (365-409)
Aasaavaree (409-411)
Ashtpadiyan (411-432)
Patee (432-435)
Chhant (435-462)
Vaar Aasaa (462-475)
Bhagat Bani (475-488)
ਰਾਗੁ ਗੂਜਰੀ | Raag Goojaree
Gurbani (489-503)
Ashtpadiyan (503-508)
Vaar Gujari (508-517)
Vaar Gujari (517-526)
ਰਾਗੁ ਦੇਵਗੰਧਾਰੀ | Raag Dayv-Gandhaaree
Gurbani (527-536)
ਰਾਗੁ ਬਿਹਾਗੜਾ | Raag Bihaagraa
Gurbani (537-556)
Chhant (538-548)
Vaar Bihaagraa (548-556)
ਰਾਗੁ ਵਡਹੰਸ | Raag Wadhans
Gurbani (557-564)
Ashtpadiyan (564-565)
Chhant (565-575)
Ghoriaan (575-578)
Alaahaniiaa (578-582)
Vaar Wadhans (582-594)
ਰਾਗੁ ਸੋਰਠਿ | Raag Sorath
Gurbani (595-634)
Asatpadhiya (634-642)
Vaar Sorath (642-659)
ਰਾਗੁ ਧਨਾਸਰੀ | Raag Dhanasaree
Gurbani (660-685)
Astpadhiya (685-687)
Chhant (687-691)
Bhagat Bani (691-695)
ਰਾਗੁ ਜੈਤਸਰੀ | Raag Jaitsree
Gurbani (696-703)
Chhant (703-705)
Vaar Jaitsaree (705-710)
Bhagat Bani (710)
ਰਾਗੁ ਟੋਡੀ | Raag Todee
ਰਾਗੁ ਬੈਰਾੜੀ | Raag Bairaaree
ਰਾਗੁ ਤਿਲੰਗ | Raag Tilang
Gurbani (721-727)
Bhagat Bani (727)
ਰਾਗੁ ਸੂਹੀ | Raag Suhi
Gurbani (728-750)
Ashtpadiyan (750-761)
Kaafee (761-762)
Suchajee (762)
Gunvantee (763)
Chhant (763-785)
Vaar Soohee (785-792)
Bhagat Bani (792-794)
ਰਾਗੁ ਬਿਲਾਵਲੁ | Raag Bilaaval
Gurbani (795-831)
Ashtpadiyan (831-838)
Thitteen (838-840)
Vaar Sat (841-843)
Chhant (843-848)
Vaar Bilaaval (849-855)
Bhagat Bani (855-858)
ਰਾਗੁ ਗੋਂਡ | Raag Gond
Gurbani (859-869)
Ashtpadiyan (869)
Bhagat Bani (870-875)
ਰਾਗੁ ਰਾਮਕਲੀ | Raag Ramkalee
Ashtpadiyan (902-916)
Gurbani (876-902)
Anand (917-922)
Sadd (923-924)
Chhant (924-929)
Dakhnee (929-938)
Sidh Gosat (938-946)
Vaar Ramkalee (947-968)
ਰਾਗੁ ਨਟ ਨਾਰਾਇਨ | Raag Nat Narayan
Gurbani (975-980)
Ashtpadiyan (980-983)
ਰਾਗੁ ਮਾਲੀ ਗਉੜਾ | Raag Maalee Gauraa
Gurbani (984-988)
Bhagat Bani (988)
ਰਾਗੁ ਮਾਰੂ | Raag Maaroo
Gurbani (889-1008)
Ashtpadiyan (1008-1014)
Kaafee (1014-1016)
Ashtpadiyan (1016-1019)
Anjulian (1019-1020)
Solhe (1020-1033)
Dakhni (1033-1043)
ਰਾਗੁ ਤੁਖਾਰੀ | Raag Tukhaari
Bara Maha (1107-1110)
Chhant (1110-1117)
ਰਾਗੁ ਕੇਦਾਰਾ | Raag Kedara
Gurbani (1118-1123)
Bhagat Bani (1123-1124)
ਰਾਗੁ ਭੈਰਉ | Raag Bhairo
Gurbani (1125-1152)
Partaal (1153)
Ashtpadiyan (1153-1167)
ਰਾਗੁ ਬਸੰਤੁ | Raag Basant
Gurbani (1168-1187)
Ashtpadiyan (1187-1193)
Vaar Basant (1193-1196)
ਰਾਗੁ ਸਾਰਗ | Raag Saarag
Gurbani (1197-1200)
Partaal (1200-1231)
Ashtpadiyan (1232-1236)
Chhant (1236-1237)
Vaar Saarang (1237-1253)
ਰਾਗੁ ਮਲਾਰ | Raag Malaar
Gurbani (1254-1293)
Partaal (1265-1273)
Ashtpadiyan (1273-1278)
Chhant (1278)
Vaar Malaar (1278-91)
Bhagat Bani (1292-93)
ਰਾਗੁ ਕਾਨੜਾ | Raag Kaanraa
Gurbani (1294-96)
Partaal (1296-1318)
Ashtpadiyan (1308-1312)
Chhant (1312)
Vaar Kaanraa
Bhagat Bani (1318)
ਰਾਗੁ ਕਲਿਆਨ | Raag Kalyaan
Gurbani (1319-23)
Ashtpadiyan (1323-26)
ਰਾਗੁ ਪ੍ਰਭਾਤੀ | Raag Prabhaatee
Gurbani (1327-1341)
Ashtpadiyan (1342-51)
ਰਾਗੁ ਜੈਜਾਵੰਤੀ | Raag Jaijaiwanti
Gurbani (1352-53)
Salok | Gatha | Phunahe | Chaubole | Swayiye
Sehskritee Mahala 1
Sehskritee Mahala 5
Gaathaa Mahala 5
Phunhay Mahala 5
Chaubolae Mahala 5
Shaloks Bhagat Kabir
Shaloks Sheikh Farid
Swaiyyae Mahala 5
Swaiyyae in Praise of Gurus
Shaloks in Addition To Vaars
Shalok Ninth Mehl
Mundavanee Mehl 5
ਰਾਗ ਮਾਲਾ, Raag Maalaa
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Psychology
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<blockquote data-quote="Astroboy" data-source="post: 67759" data-attributes="member: 4990"><p><span style="color: #6468af"><span style="color: red">Click here ></span> <a href="http://www.skepdic.com/forer.html" target="_blank">Forer effect</a></span></p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Further reading:-</p><p>Decision-making and behavioral biases</p><p>Many of these biases are studied for how they affect belief formation and business decisions and scientific research.</p><ul> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">Bandwagon effect</span></u></a> — the tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">groupthink</span></u></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behaviour" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">herd behaviour</span></u></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">manias</span></u></a>.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Base rate fallacy</span></u></a> — ignoring available statistical data in favor of particulars</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Bias blind spot</span></u></a> — the tendency not to compensate for one's own cognitive biases.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Choice-supportive bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Confirmation bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Congruence bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, in contrast to tests of possible alternative hypotheses.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Contrast effect</span></u></a> — the enhancement or diminishment of a weight or other measurement when compared with recently observed contrasting object.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Déformation professionnelle</span></u></a> — the tendency to look at things according to the conventions of one's own profession, forgetting any broader point of view.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinction_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Distinction bias</span></u></a> - the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-0" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">[1]</span></u></a></li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Endowment effect</span></u></a> — "the fact that people often demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-1" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">[2]</span></u></a></li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extreme_aversion&action=edit" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Extreme aversion</span></u></a> — the tendency to avoid extremes, being more likely to choose an option if it is the intermediate choice.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focusing_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Focusing effect</span></u></a> — prediction bias occurring when people place too much importance on one aspect of an event; causes error in accurately predicting the utility of a future outcome.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing_%28social_sciences%29" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Framing</span></u></a> — by using a too narrow approach or description of the situation or issue. Also framing effect — drawing different conclusions based on how data are presented.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_discounting" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Hyperbolic discounting</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs, the closer to the present both payoffs are.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_control" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Illusion of control</span></u></a> — the tendency for human beings to believe they can control or at least influence outcomes that they clearly cannot.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Impact bias</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Information bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrational_escalation" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Irrational escalation</span></u></a> — the tendency to make irrational decisions based upon rational decisions in the past or to justify actions already taken.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Loss aversion</span></u></a> — "the disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-2" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">[3]</span></u></a> (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunk_cost" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">sunk cost effects</span></u></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Endowment effect</span></u></a>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Mere exposure effect</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to express undue liking for things merely because they are familiar with them.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_credential" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Moral credential effect</span></u></a> — the tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul">Need for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_closure_%28psychology%29" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">closure</span></u></a> — the need to reach a verdict in important matters; to have an answer and to escape the feeling of doubt and uncertainty. The personal context (time or social pressure) might increase this bias.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-3" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">[4]</span></u></a></li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglect_of_probability" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Neglect of probability</span></u></a> — the tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omission_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Omission bias</span></u></a> — The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions (inactions).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Outcome bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning_fallacy" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Planning fallacy</span></u></a> — the tendency to underestimate task-completion times.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-purchase_rationalization" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Post-purchase rationalization</span></u></a> — the tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was a good value.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudocertainty_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Pseudocertainty effect</span></u></a> — the tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_%28psychology%29" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Reactance</span></u></a> - the urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_perception" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Selective perception</span></u></a> — the tendency for expectations to affect perception.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_quo_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Status quo bias</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to like things to stay relatively the same (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Loss aversion</span></u></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Endowment effect</span></u></a>).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-4" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">[5]</span></u></a></li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_bias&action=edit" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Unit bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to want to finish a given unit of a task or an item with strong effects on the consumption of food in particular</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Von Restorff effect</span></u></a> — the tendency for an item that "stands out like a sore thumb" to be more likely to be remembered than other items.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Zero-risk bias</span></u></a> — preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.</li> </ul><p><strong>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=2" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">edit</span></u></a>] Biases in probability and belief</strong></p><p> </p><p>Many of these biases are often studied for how they affect business and economic decisions and how they affect experimental research.</p><ul> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Ambiguity effect</span></u></a> — the avoidance of options for which missing information makes the probability seem "unknown".</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Anchoring</span></u></a> — the tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on a past reference or on one trait or piece of information when making decisions.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Attentional bias</span></u></a> — neglect of relevant data when making judgments of a correlation or association.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Availability heuristic</span></u></a> — estimating what is more likely by what is more available in memory, which is biased toward vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged examples.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Availability_cascade&action=edit" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Availability cascade</span></u></a> - a self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true").</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clustering_illusion" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Clustering illusion</span></u></a> — the tendency to see patterns where actually none exist.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Conjunction fallacy</span></u></a> — the tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general ones.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Gambler's fallacy</span></u></a> — the tendency to assume that individual random events are influenced by previous random events. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads."</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Hawthorne effect</span></u></a> — refers to a phenomenon which is thought to occur when people observed during a research study temporarily change their behavior or performance (this can also be referred to as demand characteristics).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Hindsight bias</span></u></a> — sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, the inclination to see past events as being predictable.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_correlation" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Illusory correlation</span></u></a> — beliefs that inaccurately suppose a relationship between a certain type of action and an effect.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludic_fallacy" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Ludic fallacy</span></u></a> — the analysis of chance related problems with the narrow frame of games. Ignoring the complexity of reality, and the non-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">gaussian</span></u></a> distribution of many things.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglect_of_prior_base_rates_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Neglect of prior base rates effect</span></u></a> — the tendency to neglect known odds when reevaluating odds in light of weak evidence.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Observer-expectancy effect</span></u></a> — when a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject-expectancy_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">subject-expectancy effect</span></u></a>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Optimism bias</span></u></a> — the systematic tendency to be over-optimistic about the outcome of planned actions.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Overconfidence effect</span></u></a> — the tendency to overestimate one's own abilities.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Positive outcome bias</span></u></a> — a tendency in prediction to overestimate the probability of good things happening to them (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wishful_thinking" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">wishful thinking</span></u></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">optimism bias</span></u></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">valence effect</span></u></a>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Primacy effect</span></u></a> — the tendency to weigh initial events more than subsequent events.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recency_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Recency effect</span></u></a> — the tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak-end_rule" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">peak-end rule</span></u></a>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_toward_the_mean" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Regression toward the mean</span></u></a> disregarded — the tendency to expect extreme performance to continue.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reminiscence_bump" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Reminiscence bump</span></u></a> — the effect that people tend to recall more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than from other lifetime periods.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Rosy retrospection</span></u></a> — the tendency to rate past events more positively than they had actually rated them when the event occurred.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotyping" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Stereotyping</span></u></a> — expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subadditivity_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Subadditivity effect</span></u></a> — the tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescoping_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Telescoping effect</span></u></a> — the effect that recent events appear to have occurred more remotely and remote events appear to have occurred more recently.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Texas sharpshooter fallacy</span></u></a> — the fallacy of selecting or adjusting a hypothesis after the data is collected, making it impossible to test the hypothesis fairly.</li> </ul><p><strong>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=3" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">edit</span></u></a>] Social biases</strong></p><p> </p><p>Most of these biases are labeled as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attributional_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">attributional biases</span></u></a>.</p><ul> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor-observer_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Actor-observer bias</span></u></a> — the tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (<em>see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">fundamental attribution error</span></u></a></em>). However, this is coupled with the opposite tendency for the self in that explanations for our own behaviors overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning-Kruger_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Dunning-Kruger effect</span></u></a> — "...when people are incompetent in the strategies they adopt to achieve success and satisfaction, they suffer a dual burden: Not only do they reach erroneous conclusions and make unfortunate choices, but their incompetence robs them of the ability to realize it. Instead, ...they are left with the mistaken impression that they are doing just fine."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-5" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">[6]</span></u></a>(<em>see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Wobegon_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Lake Wobegon effect</span></u></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">overconfidence effect</span></u></a></em>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentric_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Egocentric bias</span></u></a> — occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #800080">Forer effect</span></u></a> (aka Barnum Effect) — the tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. For example, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">horoscopes</span></u></a>.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consensus_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">False consensus effect</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Fundamental attribution error</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior (<em>see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor-observer_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">actor-observer bias</span></u></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_attribution_error" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">group attribution error</span></u></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivity_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">positivity effect</span></u></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">negativity effect</span></u></a></em>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Halo effect</span></u></a> — the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one area of their personality to another in others' perceptions of them (<em>see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">physical attractiveness stereotype</span></u></a></em>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_instinct" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Herd instinct</span></u></a> — Common tendency to adopt the opinions and follow the behaviors of the majority to feel safer and to avoid conflict.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_asymmetric_insight" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Illusion of asymmetric insight</span></u></a> — people perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Illusion of transparency</span></u></a> — people overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingroup_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Ingroup bias</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-world_phenomenon" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Just-world phenomenon</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to believe that the world is "just" and therefore people "get what they deserve."</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Wobegon_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Lake Wobegon effect</span></u></a> — the human tendency to report flattering beliefs about oneself and believe that one is above average (<em>see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">worse-than-average effect</span></u></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">overconfidence effect</span></u></a></em>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notational_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Notational bias</span></u></a> — a form of cultural bias in which a notation induces the appearance of a nonexistent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">natural law</span></u></a>.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outgroup_homogeneity_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Outgroup homogeneity bias</span></u></a> — individuals see members of their own group as being relatively more varied than members of other groups.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projection_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Projection bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to unconsciously assume that others share the same or similar thoughts, beliefs, values, or positions.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Self-serving bias</span></u></a> — the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (<em>see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group-serving_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">group-serving bias</span></u></a></em>).</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Self-fulfilling prophecy</span></u></a> — the tendency to engage in behaviors that elicit results which will (consciously or not) confirm our beliefs.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_justification" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">System justification</span></u></a> — the tendency to defend and bolster the status quo, i.e. existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest.</li> <li data-xf-list-type="ul"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #0000ff">Trait ascription bias</span></u></a> — the tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.</li> </ul></blockquote><p></p>
[QUOTE="Astroboy, post: 67759, member: 4990"] [COLOR=#6468af][COLOR=red]Click here >[/COLOR] [URL="http://www.skepdic.com/forer.html"]Forer effect[/URL][/COLOR] Further reading:- Decision-making and behavioral biases Many of these biases are studied for how they affect belief formation and business decisions and scientific research. [LIST] [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect"][U][COLOR=#800080]Bandwagon effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]groupthink[/COLOR][/U][/URL], [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_behaviour"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]herd behaviour[/COLOR][/U][/URL], and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]manias[/COLOR][/U][/URL]. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Base rate fallacy[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — ignoring available statistical data in favor of particulars [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_blind_spot"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Bias blind spot[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency not to compensate for one's own cognitive biases. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Choice-supportive bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Confirmation bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Congruence bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, in contrast to tests of possible alternative hypotheses. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Contrast effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the enhancement or diminishment of a weight or other measurement when compared with recently observed contrasting object. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Déformation professionnelle[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to look at things according to the conventions of one's own profession, forgetting any broader point of view. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinction_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Distinction bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] - the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-0"][U][COLOR=#800080][1][/COLOR][/U][/URL] [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Endowment effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — "the fact that people often demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it".[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-1"][U][COLOR=#800080][2][/COLOR][/U][/URL] [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extreme_aversion&action=edit"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Extreme aversion[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to avoid extremes, being more likely to choose an option if it is the intermediate choice. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focusing_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Focusing effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — prediction bias occurring when people place too much importance on one aspect of an event; causes error in accurately predicting the utility of a future outcome. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing_%28social_sciences%29"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Framing[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — by using a too narrow approach or description of the situation or issue. Also framing effect — drawing different conclusions based on how data are presented. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_discounting"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Hyperbolic discounting[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs, the closer to the present both payoffs are. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_control"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Illusion of control[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for human beings to believe they can control or at least influence outcomes that they clearly cannot. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Impact bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Information bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrational_escalation"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Irrational escalation[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to make irrational decisions based upon rational decisions in the past or to justify actions already taken. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Loss aversion[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — "the disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it".[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-2"][U][COLOR=#800080][3][/COLOR][/U][/URL] (see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunk_cost"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]sunk cost effects[/COLOR][/U][/URL] and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Endowment effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Mere exposure effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to express undue liking for things merely because they are familiar with them. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_credential"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Moral credential effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice. [*]Need for [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_closure_%28psychology%29"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]closure[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the need to reach a verdict in important matters; to have an answer and to escape the feeling of doubt and uncertainty. The personal context (time or social pressure) might increase this bias.[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-3"][U][COLOR=#800080][4][/COLOR][/U][/URL] [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglect_of_probability"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Neglect of probability[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omission_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Omission bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions (inactions). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Outcome bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning_fallacy"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Planning fallacy[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to underestimate task-completion times. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-purchase_rationalization"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Post-purchase rationalization[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was a good value. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudocertainty_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Pseudocertainty effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactance_%28psychology%29"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Reactance[/COLOR][/U][/URL] - the urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_perception"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Selective perception[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for expectations to affect perception. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_quo_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Status quo bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to like things to stay relatively the same (see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Loss aversion[/COLOR][/U][/URL] and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Endowment effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL]).[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-4"][U][COLOR=#800080][5][/COLOR][/U][/URL] [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_bias&action=edit"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Unit bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to want to finish a given unit of a task or an item with strong effects on the consumption of food in particular [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Von Restorff effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for an item that "stands out like a sore thumb" to be more likely to be remembered than other items. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-risk_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Zero-risk bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.[/LIST][B][[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit§ion=2"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]edit[/COLOR][/U][/URL]] Biases in probability and belief[/B] Many of these biases are often studied for how they affect business and economic decisions and how they affect experimental research. [LIST] [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Ambiguity effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the avoidance of options for which missing information makes the probability seem "unknown". [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Anchoring[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on a past reference or on one trait or piece of information when making decisions. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Attentional bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — neglect of relevant data when making judgments of a correlation or association. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Availability heuristic[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — estimating what is more likely by what is more available in memory, which is biased toward vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged examples. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Availability_cascade&action=edit"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Availability cascade[/COLOR][/U][/URL] - a self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true"). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clustering_illusion"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Clustering illusion[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to see patterns where actually none exist. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Conjunction fallacy[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general ones. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Gambler's fallacy[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to assume that individual random events are influenced by previous random events. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads." [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Hawthorne effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — refers to a phenomenon which is thought to occur when people observed during a research study temporarily change their behavior or performance (this can also be referred to as demand characteristics). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Hindsight bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, the inclination to see past events as being predictable. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_correlation"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Illusory correlation[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — beliefs that inaccurately suppose a relationship between a certain type of action and an effect. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludic_fallacy"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Ludic fallacy[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the analysis of chance related problems with the narrow frame of games. Ignoring the complexity of reality, and the non-[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]gaussian[/COLOR][/U][/URL] distribution of many things. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglect_of_prior_base_rates_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Neglect of prior base rates effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to neglect known odds when reevaluating odds in light of weak evidence. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Observer-expectancy effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — when a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject-expectancy_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]subject-expectancy effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Optimism bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the systematic tendency to be over-optimistic about the outcome of planned actions. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Overconfidence effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to overestimate one's own abilities. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Positive outcome bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — a tendency in prediction to overestimate the probability of good things happening to them (see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wishful_thinking"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]wishful thinking[/COLOR][/U][/URL], [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]optimism bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]valence effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primacy_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Primacy effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to weigh initial events more than subsequent events. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recency_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Recency effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events (see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak-end_rule"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]peak-end rule[/COLOR][/U][/URL]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_toward_the_mean"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Regression toward the mean[/COLOR][/U][/URL] disregarded — the tendency to expect extreme performance to continue. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reminiscence_bump"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Reminiscence bump[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the effect that people tend to recall more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than from other lifetime periods. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosy_retrospection"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Rosy retrospection[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to rate past events more positively than they had actually rated them when the event occurred. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotyping"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Stereotyping[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subadditivity_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Subadditivity effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescoping_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Telescoping effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the effect that recent events appear to have occurred more remotely and remote events appear to have occurred more recently. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Texas sharpshooter fallacy[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the fallacy of selecting or adjusting a hypothesis after the data is collected, making it impossible to test the hypothesis fairly.[/LIST][B][[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit§ion=3"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]edit[/COLOR][/U][/URL]] Social biases[/B] Most of these biases are labeled as [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attributional_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]attributional biases[/COLOR][/U][/URL]. [LIST] [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor-observer_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Actor-observer bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation ([I]see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]fundamental attribution error[/COLOR][/U][/URL][/I]). However, this is coupled with the opposite tendency for the self in that explanations for our own behaviors overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning-Kruger_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Dunning-Kruger effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — "...when people are incompetent in the strategies they adopt to achieve success and satisfaction, they suffer a dual burden: Not only do they reach erroneous conclusions and make unfortunate choices, but their incompetence robs them of the ability to realize it. Instead, ...they are left with the mistaken impression that they are doing just fine."[URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#_note-5"][U][COLOR=#800080][6][/COLOR][/U][/URL]([I]see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Wobegon_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Lake Wobegon effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL], and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]overconfidence effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL][/I]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egocentric_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Egocentric bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_effect"][U][COLOR=#800080]Forer effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] (aka Barnum Effect) — the tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. For example, [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horoscope"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]horoscopes[/COLOR][/U][/URL]. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_consensus_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]False consensus effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Fundamental attribution error[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior ([I]see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor-observer_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]actor-observer bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL], [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_attribution_error"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]group attribution error[/COLOR][/U][/URL], [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivity_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]positivity effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL], and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negativity_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]negativity effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL][/I]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Halo effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one area of their personality to another in others' perceptions of them ([I]see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]physical attractiveness stereotype[/COLOR][/U][/URL][/I]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_instinct"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Herd instinct[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — Common tendency to adopt the opinions and follow the behaviors of the majority to feel safer and to avoid conflict. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_asymmetric_insight"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Illusion of asymmetric insight[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — people perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Illusion of transparency[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — people overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingroup_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Ingroup bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-world_phenomenon"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Just-world phenomenon[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to believe that the world is "just" and therefore people "get what they deserve." [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Wobegon_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Lake Wobegon effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the human tendency to report flattering beliefs about oneself and believe that one is above average ([I]see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]worse-than-average effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL], and [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconfidence_effect"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]overconfidence effect[/COLOR][/U][/URL][/I]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notational_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Notational bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — a form of cultural bias in which a notation induces the appearance of a nonexistent [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]natural law[/COLOR][/U][/URL]. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outgroup_homogeneity_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Outgroup homogeneity bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — individuals see members of their own group as being relatively more varied than members of other groups. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projection_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Projection bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to unconsciously assume that others share the same or similar thoughts, beliefs, values, or positions. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-serving_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Self-serving bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests ([I]see also [URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group-serving_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]group-serving bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL][/I]). [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Self-fulfilling prophecy[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to engage in behaviors that elicit results which will (consciously or not) confirm our beliefs. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_justification"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]System justification[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency to defend and bolster the status quo, i.e. existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest. [*][URL="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias"][U][COLOR=#0000ff]Trait ascription bias[/COLOR][/U][/URL] — the tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.[/LIST] [/QUOTE]
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