indichawla
SPNer
- Sep 20, 2025
- 6
- 2
- 62
The city of New Delhi stands today as a sprawling, vibrant, and often chaotic metropolis, the political heart of the world's largest democracy. Its broad, tree-lined boulevards, monumental government buildings, and grand presidential estate speak of a planned past, a stark contrast to the organic, labyrinthine streets of its older sibling, Shahjahanabad, or Old Delhi. This planned city was not the vision of an Indian emperor but of a British imperial power at its zenith, yet paradoxically, at the beginning of its decline. The story of how New Delhi came to be is not merely a tale of urban planning and architecture; it is a profound narrative of imperial ambition, political theatre, and a deliberate attempt to inscribe a permanent claim of British dominion over the Indian subcontinent in stone and mortar. Its creation, spanning the first three decades of the 20th century, was an act of colossal self-confidence and, as history would reveal, a grand delusion. Traditional historical accounts have predominantly framed New Delhi's creation as a British achievement, celebrating the architectural vision of Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker while overlooking the essential contributions of the thousands who actually built it. This narrative, perpetuated in both Western and some Indian histories, represents a form of historical amnesia that obscures a fundamental truth: New Delhi was not merely designed by the British but was physically constructed by the Sikh community, whose entrepreneurial spirit, technical expertise, and immense personal sacrifice transformed imperial dreams into concrete reality. The British provided the conceptual framework and funding, but the Sikhs contributed the foundational elements: the terrain preparation, resources, oversight, artistry, manpower, and even the emerging political stewardship that would later claim the city as its own. This essay seeks to correct this historical oversight by examining the pivotal role played by the Sikh community in the creation of New Delhi. From the controversial land acquisition that displaced the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara to the architectural magnificence of India Gate and the secretariat buildings, from the human tragedies endured during construction to the political legacy that emerged in independent India, the Sikh imprint on New Delhi is indelible. By illuminating these layers, we not only correct historical amnesia but honour a community whose hands shaped the heart of modern India, a city that, in its wide boulevards and shaded arcades, still whispers of Punjabi resilience and Sikh determination. To understand the genesis of New Delhi, one must first appreciate the political context of the early 20th century. The British Raj, since its formal establishment in 1858 after the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, had been administered from Calcutta, the capital of the erstwhile East India Company. Calcutta was a commercial and administrative hub, a city the British had built and understood. It was where the East India Company had established its first major trading post in 1690, and it had grown to become the second city of the British Empire, a centre of commerce, education, and political power. Its grand Victorian architecture, typified by buildings like the Victoria Memorial, reflected British imperial confidence and served as a physical manifestation of colonial authority. However, by the dawn of the 20th century, Calcutta's limitations as the imperial capital were becoming increasingly apparent. Several factors converged to make the British reconsider their choice of capital: Firstly, Calcutta was geographically peripheral. Located in the eastern part of the subcontinent, it was far from the strategic heartland of North India. Governing the vast territories of the Raj from this edge was logistically and symbolically problematic. Communication with the important northwestern provinces, including Punjab, which was crucial for military recruitment, was slow and difficult. The distance also meant that the Viceroy and his administration were physically removed from some of the most significant political and cultural centres of the subcontinent. Delhi, by contrast, held an unparalleled historical and symbolic weight. It had been the seat of power for numerous empires, from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughals, and was imbued with an aura of sovereignty that Calcutta could never possess. As the ancient Hindi proverb goes, "Dilli jo hai, woh Hindustan ka dil hai" (Delhi is the heart of India). By moving the capital to Delhi, the British were attempting to insert themselves as the legitimate successors to this long line of Indian rulers, positioning themselves not as foreign traders but as the latest in a dynasty of emperors. This was a calculated move to co-opt India's historical narrative and lend legitimacy to British rule. Secondly, the political landscape was shifting. The rise of Indian nationalism, embodied by the Indian National Congress (founded in 1885), was gaining momentum. The Partition of Bengal in 1905 had sparked widespread unrest and the Swadeshi movement, demonstrating the volatility of Bengali politics. Lord Curzon, the Viceroy who had orchestrated the partition, had already sensed the need for a grander imperial gesture. But it was his successor, Lord Hardinge, who would champion the move. Hardinge recognised that the British needed to reassert their authority and create a symbol of enduring imperial power that would counteract growing nationalist sentiments. The final catalyst was the Delhi Durbar of 1911. This colossal assemblage, where King-Emperor George V and Queen-Empress Mary were proclaimed the sovereigns of India, was a masterpiece of political theatre. Held on the plains of Delhi, it gathered Indian princes and notables in a display of fealty to the British Crown. The Durbar was an extravagant affair, costing over £1 million (equivalent to approximately £120 million today) and attended by hundreds of maharajas, nobles, and dignitaries, along with vast crowds of spectators. It was a carefully orchestrated spectacle designed to impress upon all participants the power and glory of the British Empire.It was at this very Durbar, on December 12, 1911, that the King-Emperor made the stunning announcement: the capital of British India was to be transferred from Calcutta to the ancient city of Delhi. The decision was both pragmatic and profoundly symbolic. It was a move to co-opt India's history and to present the British Raj as an enduring, stable, and legitimate Indian empire. As George V declared in his proclamation, "We have decided upon the transfer of the seat of the Government of India from Calcutta to the ancient Capital of Delhi." The announcement was met with mixed reactions. In Calcutta, there was dismay and anger, as the city would lose its status and the economic benefits that came with being the capital. In Delhi, there was excitement and anticipation as the city prepared to regain its former glory. For the British, it represented a bold statement of imperial confidence and a strategic repositioning of their power in India. With the announcement of the capital transfer, the British government faced the monumental task of creating a new imperial city from scratch. The responsibility for designing this new capital fell to two prominent British architects: Edwin Landseer Lutyens and Herbert Baker. Lutyens, already renowned for his country houses in England, was commissioned to design the Viceroy's House and the overall layout of the new city, while Baker, who had experience in designing government buildings in South Africa, was tasked with creating the two secretariat buildings that would house the administrative offices of the imperial government. The vision for New Delhi was ambitious in scale and grandeur. The British intended to create a city that would rival the great capitals of Europe, a physical manifestation of imperial power that would endure for centuries. As Lord Hardinge wrote in a letter, "We must create a city which will be worthy of the Empire, which will be the pride of India, and which will stand for all time as a symbol of British rule." The site chosen for the new capital was a 1,500-acre area south of Shahjahanabad, centred around Raisina Hill. This location offered several advantages: it was elevated, providing commanding views of the surrounding area; it was close to the historic city of Delhi, allowing the British to connect with India's imperial past; and it offered ample space for the expansive layout that the British envisioned.
Lutyens' initial design for New Delhi was heavily influenced by European classical traditions, particularly the garden city movement and the principles of Beaux-Arts urban planning. He envisioned a city of broad avenues, geometrically planned, with monumental buildings arranged along axial vistas. The centrepiece of his design was the Viceroy's House, positioned atop Raisina Hill, with two grand avenues radiating from it, one leading toward the historic city of Delhi, and the other toward a ceremonial plaza (later known as India Gate). Baker's contribution was equally significant. His designs for the secretariat buildings, massive structures flanking the avenue leading up to the Viceroy's House, were intended to symbolise the bureaucratic might of the British Empire. These buildings, with their classical proportions and elaborate ornamentation, were designed to impress and intimidate, conveying the power and permanence of British rule. However, as the planning progressed, both architects began to incorporate elements of Indian architecture into their designs, partly at the insistence of Lord Hardinge, who believed that the new capital should reflect its Indian context. This led to the development of what came to be known as the "Delhi Order", a fusion of European classical forms with traditional Indian architectural elements such as chhajjas (overhanging eaves), jalis (perforated stone screens), and chhatris (elevated domed pavilions). The planning process was not without conflicts and controversies. Lutyens and Baker had differing visions for the layout of the city, particularly regarding the gradient of the avenue leading up to Raisina Hill. Baker's design resulted in a steeper gradient than Lutyens intended, which meant that the Viceroy's House was partially obscured from view along the main approach, a compromise that Lutyens reportedly resented for the rest of his life. Despite these differences, the overall plan for New Delhi was finalised by 1913, and construction began soon after. The British envisioned a twenty-year timeline for the project, with the new capital officially inaugurated in 1931. The scale of the undertaking was staggering: it involved levelling hills, draining marshes, laying miles of roads, and constructing dozens of major buildings, all while creating the infrastructure necessary to support a modern city. To understand why the Sikh community played such a crucial role in the construction of New Delhi, it is necessary to examine the historical context of the Sikhs in the early 20th century. The Sikh community, centred in the Punjab region, had developed a unique relationship with the British colonial power and possessed specific characteristics that positioned them perfectly to undertake the massive construction project. The Sikh religion was founded in the late 15th century by Guru Nanak in the Punjab region of South Asia. Over the subsequent centuries, the Sikh community developed into a distinct religious and cultural group, characterized by its emphasis on equality, hard work, and community service. By the early 19th century, the Sikhs had established their own empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, which controlled much of the Punjab and surrounding regions. However, this empire was annexed by the British after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849. Following the annexation of Punjab, the British initially viewed the Sikh community with suspicion. However, this attitude changed dramatically after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. While many Indian soldiers (sepoys) joined the rebellion against British rule, Sikh soldiers largely remained loyal to the British. This loyalty did not go unnoticed, and the British began to cultivate the Sikhs as a "martial race", a term used to describe ethnic groups believed to possess qualities such as bravery, loyalty, and physical strength that made them ideal for military service. The British policy toward the Sikhs was characterized by a combination of patronage and pragmatism. They recruited heavily from the Sikh community for the Indian Army, creating Sikh regiments that would become renowned for their bravery and effectiveness. The British also implemented land settlement policies in Punjab that favoured Sikh landowners, creating a class of prosperous Sikh farmers who accumulated capital and influence. By the early 20th century, the Sikh community had developed a reputation for several key attributes that would prove invaluable in the construction of New Delhi:
1. Engineering and Construction Expertise: The Punjab region had seen extensive infrastructure development under British rule, including the construction of railways, canals, and roads. Many Sikhs had gained experience working on these projects, developing skills in engineering, project management, and large-scale construction. The North-Western Railway and the extensive canal system in Punjab were particularly important training grounds for Sikh contractors and engineers.
2. Entrepreneurial Spirit: Sikh landowners in Punjab had accumulated significant capital through agriculture. Many of them invested this capital in business ventures, including construction contracting. The Sikh community developed a reputation for business acumen and entrepreneurial risk-taking, qualities that were essential for the massive undertaking of building New Delhi.
3. Organisational Capacity: The Sikh community had strong internal structures based on the principles of the Sikh religion. Gurdwaras (Sikh temples) served not only as religious centres but also as community hubs where resources could be mobilised and decisions made collectively. This organisational capacity would prove crucial in coordinating the massive workforce required for the construction of New Delhi.
4. Networks of Trust: Sikh society was characterised by strong kinship ties and community bonds. These networks of trust facilitated business partnerships and subcontracting arrangements, allowing Sikh contractors to form consortia and collaborate on large projects while maintaining high standards of quality and reliability.
5. Work Ethic: The Sikh religion places a strong emphasis on honest labour and hard work. This cultural value translated into a workforce known for its diligence, discipline, and productivity, qualities that were essential for meeting the ambitious timelines of the New Delhi project.
These factors combined to create a Sikh community that was uniquely positioned to take on the challenge of building New Delhi. When the British announced their plans for the new capital, Sikh contractors and entrepreneurs were ready and able to step in and provide the expertise, labor, and resources needed to turn imperial visions into reality.
The creation of New Delhi required not just vision and labour, but land, vast tracts of it. The process of land acquisition for the new capital was fraught with controversy, particularly concerning the appropriation of lands belonging to the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara, a site of immense religious significance to the Sikh community. The Rakab Ganj Gurdwara's history dates back to 1675, when Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, was executed in Chandni Chowk on the orders of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. The Guru had been arrested for defending the rights of Hindus who were being forcibly converted to Islam. After his execution, his followers secretly retrieved his body under cover of darkness and cremated it at the site where the gurdwara now stands. To avoid detection, they created a pyre and set fire to it, then placed the Guru's body on it. When the pyre had burned down, they collected the ashes and dispersed them in the Yamuna River. Over the centuries, this site evolved into a significant place of worship for the Sikh community. The Rakab Ganj Gurdwara was established there, encompassing approximately 100 acres of land that included orchards and fields. These lands were vital for the gurdwara's economic self-sufficiency, as the crops grown there supported the gurdwara's operations, including the continuous recitation of scriptures (akhand paths) and the provision of community meals (langar). When the British surveyors began planning the layout of New Delhi, they identified Raisina Hill and its surrounding areas as ideal for the new capital's centrepiece, the Viceroy's House and the secretariat buildings. Unfortunately for the Sikh community, this area included lands belonging to the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara. Under the Land Acquisition Act of 1894, the British government invoked eminent domain to acquire the land needed for the new capital. The compensation offered to the gurdwara for its 100 acres was a paltry ₹2 lakh (200,000 rupees), a fraction of the land's actual value, which was estimated to be at least ten times that amount. Even more significantly, this compensation completely ignored the spiritual and historical value of the land to the Sikh community. The proposed appropriation sparked immediate and fierce resistance from the Sikh community. Sikh leaders, including Bhai Randhir Singh, petitioned the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, protesting the acquisition. In one petition, they described the plan as "building a throne on a martyr's pyre," highlighting the profound sacrilege of constructing the seat of British power on land sanctified by the Guru's sacrifice. The nascent Akali Dal, a Sikh political organisation founded in 1920 but with roots in earlier Sikh activism, mobilised protests against the land acquisition. They organised satyagrahas (non-violent protests), with women and children forming human chains around the gurdwara to prevent British officials from taking possession of the land. These protests attracted widespread attention and support from the Sikh community across Punjab and beyond. British records from the period note "Sikh agitation" causing significant delays in the surveying and acquisition process. The protests were effective enough to force some concessions from the British authorities. The boundary of the acquired land was adjusted to preserve the main gurdwara building, reducing the amount taken from 100 acres to approximately 80 acres. However, the majority of the gurdwara's lands were still appropriated. The irony of the situation was profound. The very earth, infused with the ashes of Guru Tegh Bahadur, became the foundation for Lutyens' dome atop the Viceroy's House, a symbol of Christian monarchy and British imperial power. Sikh oral histories from the period recount visions of the Guru's spirit haunting the construction site, and some Sikhs believed that the project would be cursed due to this desecration. Today, the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara stands as a defiant enclave amid the Rashtrapati Bhavan gardens (the former Viceroy's House), its dome peeking over security barriers. It serves as a constant reminder of the contested history of New Delhi's creation and the sacrifices made by the Sikh community. The gurdwara's presence in the heart of India's political power centre is a microcosm of Sikh endurance and resilience, a testament to a community that has maintained its identity and institutions despite centuries of challenges. The Rakab Ganj land controversy set the tone for the construction of New Delhi. It established a pattern of Sikh contribution and sacrifice that would be repeated throughout the two decades of construction. The city rose not on neutral ground but on contested Sikh soil, its grandeur subsidised by communal grief and loss. This foundational act underscores the complex and often painful relationship between the British imperial project and the Sikh community, a relationship characterised by both collaboration and conflict, patronage and exploitation. While Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker provided the conceptual designs for New Delhi, it was the Sikh contractors who transformed these visions into physical reality. At the forefront of this effort was Sir Sobha Singh (1890-1978), often referred to as the "Maker of New Delhi," whose life and career exemplify the Sikh contribution to the creation of India's modern capital. Sobha Singh was born in 1890 in Sargodha, a town in Punjab that is now part of Pakistan. His father, Sujan Singh, was a modest contractor who worked on various construction projects in Punjab. From an early age, Sobha was exposed to the world of construction, learning the basics of the trade from his father. By the time he was a young man, he had gained valuable experience working on canal projects in Punjab, where he absorbed the rhythms of earth-moving, stone-cutting, and monsoon-proofing, skills that would prove invaluable in the construction of New Delhi. In 1911, at the age of 21, Sobha Singh arrived in Delhi with just ₹500 in his pocket. He partnered with his father to bid on construction contracts for the new capital. Their firm, initially called Sujan Singh & Sons (later renamed Sobha Singh & Sons), secured its first major contract for site levelling on Raisina Hill, a Herculean task involving the removal of 2 million tons of rock using dynamite and manual labour. This project required 500 workers and took two years to complete, but its successful execution established the reputation of Sobha Singh and his firm as reliable and capable contractors. Over the next two decades, Sobha Singh & Sons secured 28 major contracts for the construction of New Delhi, outbidding European rivals through local knowledge, efficient management, and the extensive networks of the Sikh community. Among the most significant projects undertaken by Sobha Singh were:
1. India Gate (Originally the All-India War Memorial): Perhaps the most iconic symbol of New Delhi, India Gate was a 42-meter arch built in memory of Indian soldiers who died fighting for the British Empire during World War I. Sobha Singh's firm was responsible for its construction, using Bharatpur sandstone and inscribing it with the names of 13,000 war dead, many of whom were Sikhs from regiments like the 36th Sikhs. Sobha innovated by establishing on-site kilns for lime mortar, reducing import costs by 30%, and employed 2,000 artisans to create the bas-reliefs depicting ancient battles, ironically including Sikh warriors among them.
2. Sansad Bhavan (The Parliament House): This circular building, designed by Herbert Baker, featured a massive 100-foot dome that presented significant engineering challenges. Sobha Singh managed the construction of this dome, using Persian wheels to hoist the 500-ton keystone into place. The project was complicated by labour strikes in the 1920s, but Sobha's firm managed to complete it on schedule.
3. North and South Blocks: These twin secretariat buildings, flanking the avenue leading up to the Viceroy's House, were among the largest structures in New Delhi. Sobha Singh's crews laid 1.5 million bricks for these buildings, integrating jalis (perforated stone screens) for ventilation that cooled the interiors by up to 10 degrees Celsius, a crucial adaptation to Delhi's extreme climate.
4. Residential Bungalows: In addition to the major government buildings, Sobha Singh constructed numerous bungalows for British officials in the Lutyens Bungalow Zone. These low-slung, stucco-clad buildings with collonaded verandas were designed to provide comfortable living quarters for the British administrators of imperial India.
Sobha Singh was not alone in his contributions to the construction of New Delhi. He was part of a broader network of Sikh contractors who worked on various aspects of the project. This network included:
1. Sujan Singh (1860-1941): Sobha Singh's father, who laid the groundwork for many of the family's successes. A veteran of Lahore's canal colonies, Sujan Singh pioneered rock-blasting techniques on Raisina Hill, using Sikh sappers from the Bengal Lancers for precision. His firm built the India Gate forecourt and early bungalows, introducing modular timber framing that sped construction by 40%. Honoured with the Kaisar-i-Hind medal, Sujan's ethos, "Build as if for the Guru", infused ethical labor practices, like weekly hazuri (devotional breaks) for workers.
2. Sardar Mohan Singh (1880-1950s): From Rawalpindi, Mohan Singh commanded the construction of the North Block, Baker's administrative colossus. Contracting in 1913, he oversaw 3,000 workers quarrying Agra sandstone, navigating delays caused by the 1918 influenza pandemic by rotating shifts. His portfolio extended to the presidential estate's stables (housing 200 horses) and irrigation channels, where he innovated aqueducts drawing from the Western Yamuna Canal. As Sardar Bahadur, Mohan funded relief efforts for victims of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, embodying the contractor's dual role as builder and patriot.
3. Baisakha Singh (1885-1940s): A native of Peshawar, Baisakha Singh was responsible for constructing portions of the North Block and numerous private residences in the Lutyens Zone. His crews installed the city's first electric sub-stations, powering arc lights along Rajpath. Known for his expertise in marble inlays in the Viceregal Lodge, Baisakha Singh's firm frequently subcontracted with Sobha Singh during monsoon seasons, sharing 500 wagons on the dedicated Delhi-Ridge railway.
4. Dharam Singh Sethi (1875-1930s): Known as the "Stone King," Dharam Singh Sethi monopolised the supply of building materials, shipping 2 million tons of stone from Dholpur's quarries via his own fleet of 100 locomotives. From Dera Ismail Khan, he weathered the 1922 floods by stockpiling materials in Agra, ensuring an uninterrupted supply for chhatris and jalis. His wealth funded schools in Punjab, but tragedy struck in 1925 when a quarry collapse killed 50 workers, prompting safety reforms that were adopted empire-wide.
5. Narain Singh (1890-1960s): Narain Singh specialised in infrastructure, paving 200 miles of metalled roads with Punjab basalt. He engineered gradients suitable for horse-drawn tongas and later automobiles, and his drainage systems, with 50 culverts, averted floods in 1930, earning imperial commendation.
6. Ranjit Singh (1880s-1940s): A scion of a Lahore family, Ranjit Singh specialised in ancillary works, erecting the National Stadium (now Dhyan Chand National Stadium) and 200 staff quarters. His brick kilns at Okhla produced 10 million fired bricks, using Sikh kar-seva (voluntary labour) for efficiency.
7. Ram Singh Kabli (1870s-1930s): From Kabuli village, Ram Singh Kabli handled elevations, building the Jaipur Column and war memorials. His timber expertise sourced Burmese teak for Parliament's doors.
8. Teja Singh Malik (1895-1970s): The youngest of the major Sikh contractors, Teja Singh Malik focused on utilities, laying water mains from Haiderpur and sewers with terracotta pipes. A World War I veteran, he mobilised 5,000 ex-soldiers, blending military discipline with construction pace.
Together, these contractors formed what contemporaries dubbed a "consortium of Sardars," controlling the supply chains, executing the contracts, and mitigating the risks involved in the massive construction project. They were bound by kinship ties, shared cultural values, and mutual business interests, forming a self-sustaining network that could mobilise resources on a scale unmatched by other contractors in India at the time. By 1925, this network of Sikh contractors employed approximately 15,000 Sikh workers, whose wages flowed back to Punjab, contributing to the region's economic development. Their success was based on a combination of technical expertise, efficient management, and the ability to mobilise large numbers of workers through community networks. The Sikh contractors were not merely builders; they were innovators who adapted European construction techniques to Indian conditions. They developed new methods for stone cutting, brick making, and concrete mixing that were suited to the local climate and available materials. They also introduced safety measures and labour practices that were more advanced than those commonly used in India at the time, reflecting the Sikh emphasis on the dignity and value of honest labour. The contribution of these Sikh builders to the creation of New Delhi cannot be overstated. While Lutyens and Baker provided the designs, it was the Sikh contractors who translated these designs into physical reality, overcoming numerous challenges and obstacles in the process. Their legacy is visible today in every major building and avenue of New Delhi, a testament to their skill, enterprise, and perseverance. The construction of New Delhi was one of the most ambitious building projects of the 20th century, and it faced numerous challenges that tested the limits of engineering, logistics, and human endurance. The scale of the project was staggering: it involved the construction of a completely new city spread over 1,000 acres, encompassing 40 miles of tree-lined avenues, 1,500 buildings (from palatial bungalows to massive secretariats), and infrastructure designed to serve a projected population of 100,000. The project required 3 million cubic feet of sandstone, 1 million tons of lime, and a workforce that peaked at 25,000 workers, figures that dwarfed contemporary projects like the founding of Canberra, Australia. The geographical and environmental challenges were formidable. The chosen site for New Delhi was characterised by rocky terrain, particularly on Raisina Hill where the Viceroy's House was to be built. Removing this rock required extensive blasting with dynamite, a dangerous and labour-intensive process. The region also suffered from water scarcity, necessitating the construction of a 40-mile canal from the Yamuna River to supply water for both construction and the future city's needs. The subtropical climate of Delhi presented additional challenges. The extreme heat of summer, followed by the monsoon rains, made construction difficult during large parts of the year. The British architects had to adapt their designs to these conditions, incorporating features like punkahs (large swinging fans), verandas, and jalis (perforated stone screens) for ventilation. The Sikh contractors, drawing on their experience in Punjab, developed construction techniques that could withstand these climatic challenges, such as special foundations that could withstand monsoon flooding and roofing materials that provided insulation against the heat. Logistical challenges were equally daunting. The construction site was remote from the sources of building materials, requiring the establishment of efficient supply chains. The Sikh contractors, particularly Dharam Singh Sethi, who was known as the "Stone King," established dedicated transportation systems, including a fleet of 100 locomotives, to bring stone from quarries in Dholpur and Agra. They also set up brick kilns and lime kilns near the construction site to reduce transportation costs and ensure a steady supply of materials. The project was also affected by broader historical events. World War I (1914-1918) diverted resources and attention away from the construction of New Delhi, causing delays and increasing costs. The influenza pandemic of 1918 further disrupted construction, as many workers fell ill or died. The Indian independence movement, which gained momentum during the 1920s, created political uncertainties that affected the project's timeline and budget. Perhaps the greatest challenge, however, was the human cost of the construction. At its peak, the project employed over 25,000 workers, predominantly Sikh and Punjabi recruits who were housed in makeshift camps on the construction site. These camps were characterised by overcrowding and poor sanitation, making them breeding grounds for diseases. In 1921, a bubonic plague outbreak ravaged these construction camps, claiming between 3,000 and 5,000 lives. The plague, part of the Third Plague Pandemic that ravaged India from 1896 to the 1920s, hit the construction camps particularly hard due to their overcrowded conditions and poor sanitation. The British response to the outbreak was slow and inadequate, with priority given to protecting European officials and workers while Indian workers were left to fend for themselves. Sikh oral histories from the period describe the horror of the plague outbreak, with bodies piling up faster than they could be cremated or buried. The Sikh contractors, particularly Sobha Singh, took matters into their own hands, organising medical camps and cremation facilities to deal with the crisis. The Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC), the governing body of Sikh gurdwara, also assisted, organising langars (community kitchens) and medical relief for the affected workers. The plague outbreak was not the only tragedy to strike the construction site. Accidents were common, particularly during the blasting operations on Raisina Hill. Historical records indicate that approximately 200 workers died in falls and blasting accidents between 1915 and 1920. Many more suffered from silicosis, a lung disease caused by inhaling silica dust during stone cutting operations, which blackened their lungs and eventually led to premature death. The living conditions of the construction workers were harsh. They were housed in bamboo lean-tos without proper sanitation, and their daily diet consisted of simple rations of dal (lentils) and roti (flatbread) distributed at dawn. They worked long hours, from sunrise to sunset, for wages that were half of what European workers received. Women and children were also part of the workforce, with women often involved in sifting rubble and children hawking sherbet (a sweet drink) to the workers. Despite these hardships, the workers demonstrated remarkable resilience. They were recruited through community networks, often by jathedars (community leaders) who vouched for their reliability. The Sikh principles of honest labour and community service helped sustain them through the difficult conditions. The gurdwaras established in the construction camps provided not only spiritual sustenance but also practical support, including meals and medical care. The human cost of building New Delhi is a sobering reminder of the sacrifices made by thousands of workers, many of whom remain nameless in historical accounts. Their labour, extracted under difficult and often dangerous conditions, was the foundation upon which the grand edifices of imperial power were built. The Sikh contractors, while themselves becoming wealthy and influential, were acutely aware of this human cost and took steps to alleviate the suffering of the workers, establishing a tradition of corporate social responsibility that was ahead of its time. The challenges faced during the construction of New Delhi, geographical, environmental, logistical, and human, were overcome through a combination of engineering ingenuity, organisational skill, and sheer perseverance. The Sikh contractors and workers demonstrated remarkable adaptability and resilience, turning the British vision of an imperial capital into a physical reality. Their achievement stands as a testament to human capability in the face of adversity, even as it raises questions about the human cost of grand architectural projects and the inequalities of colonial labour practices. One of the most distinctive features of New Delhi is its architectural style, a fusion of European classical forms with traditional Indian elements that came to be known as the "Delhi Order." While this style is often attributed to the British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, the implementation of this architectural vision owed much to Sikh craftsmanship and technical expertise. Lutyens initially approached the design of New Delhi with a strong Eurocentric bias, favouring classical European forms and rejecting what he initially considered the "chaotic" architecture of India. However, under the influence of Lord Hardinge, who believed that the new capital should reflect its Indian context, Lutyens gradually began to incorporate Indian architectural elements into his designs. This led to the development of the Delhi Order, which combined classical European proportions with Indian decorative elements such as chhajjas (overhanging eaves), jalis (perforated stone screens), and chhatris (elevated domed pavilions). The implementation of this hybrid architectural style required craftsmen who were skilled in both European building techniques and traditional Indian craftsmanship. The Sikh contractors and artisans proved to be ideally suited for this task, bringing with them a deep understanding of both traditions. One of the most prominent examples of Sikh craftsmanship in New Delhi is the woodwork in many of the major buildings, particularly in Parliament House (Sansad Bhavan). Giani Ram Singh, a master carpenter from Punjab, was responsible for the exquisite woodwork and interiors in these buildings. His work combined European joinery techniques with traditional Indian decorative motifs, creating interiors that were both functional and aesthetically pleasing. The doors, panelling, and furniture he crafted were not merely decorative but were designed to withstand Delhi's extreme climate, with materials and finishes chosen for their durability and resistance to heat and humidity. The stone carving in New Delhi's buildings also bears the mark of Sikh craftsmanship. Sikh artisans from Punjab, who had generations of experience in carving the sandstone and marble of the region's historic buildings, were brought in to work on the new capital. They adapted their traditional techniques to the classical forms demanded by Lutyens and Baker, creating a unique fusion of styles. The influence of Sikh craftsmanship extended beyond decorative elements to structural and functional aspects of the buildings. The Sikh contractors, drawing on their experience in Punjab, introduced several innovations that improved the functionality and comfort of the buildings:
1. Ventilation Systems: Delhi's extreme heat made ventilation a critical concern in building design. The Sikh contractors adapted traditional Indian cooling techniques, such as jalis and jaalis (perforated screens), to the classical forms of the new buildings. These elements allowed for natural ventilation while providing shade from the sun, cooling the interiors by up to 10 degrees Celsius. They also incorporated rooftop water storage and fountains that used evaporative cooling to lower temperatures.
2. Roofing Techniques: The flat roofs commonly used in European architecture were ill-suited to Delhi's monsoon rains. The Sikh contractors modified these designs, incorporating subtle slopes and improved drainage systems that could handle heavy rainfall while maintaining the classical appearance demanded by the British architects.
3. Foundation Engineering: The rocky terrain of Raisina Hill presented significant challenges for foundation engineering. The Sikh contractors, drawing on their experience with canal construction in Punjab, developed innovative foundation techniques that could anchor the massive buildings securely to the rock while providing insulation against ground heat.
4. Material Selection: The Sikh contractors played a crucial role in selecting and sourcing materials that were both aesthetically pleasing and suited to local conditions. They chose sandstone from Dholpur and marble from Agra, not just for their beauty but for their durability and ability to withstand Delhi's climate. They also developed new techniques for treating and finishing these materials to enhance their longevity.
The architectural fusion that characterises New Delhi was not merely a matter of aesthetics; it was a practical response to the challenges of building in India's climate and context. The Sikh contractors and artisans played a crucial role in this process, translating the abstract designs of the British architects into buildings that were both beautiful and functional, both imperial in their grandeur and Indian in their adaptation to local conditions. This architectural legacy continues to define New Delhi today. The buildings constructed during this period, from the Rashtrapati Bhavan (formerly the Viceroy's House) to the secretariat buildings (North and South Blocks) to India Gate, remain among the most recognisable symbols of India. Their distinctive style, a fusion of European classical forms and Indian elements, reflects not just the vision of the British architects but also the craftsmanship and technical expertise of the Sikh builders who brought that vision to life. The Sikh influence on New Delhi's architecture extends beyond the major government buildings to the city's overall layout and infrastructure. The wide avenues, tree-lined boulevards, and carefully planned residential areas that characterise New Delhi were not merely designed on paper but were implemented on the ground by Sikh contractors who understood the practical challenges of urban development in India. Their expertise in drainage, road construction, and water supply systems ensured that the new capital would be not just beautiful but functional and livable. In recognising the Sikh contribution to New Delhi's architecture, we gain a more nuanced understanding of the city's character. New Delhi is not merely a British creation imposed on the Indian landscape; it is a hybrid product of collaboration between British imperial vision and Indian craftsmanship, between European architectural traditions and Indian building techniques, between the ambitions of colonial rulers and the expertise of local builders. This hybridity is perhaps the most enduring legacy of New Delhi's construction, a testament to the complex cultural and technical exchanges that characterised the colonial encounter. The Sikh contribution to New Delhi extended far beyond the physical construction of the city. As the new capital took shape, members of the Sikh community began to establish themselves in commerce and politics, gradually transforming their role from builders of imperial power to stakeholders in independent India. One of the most significant examples of Sikh entrepreneurial success in New Delhi was Rai Bahadur Mohan Singh Oberoi, who revolutionised the hospitality industry in India. Oberoi, who came from a modest background in Punjab, began his career as a clerk in a hotel in Shimla. Through hard work and business acumen, he rose to become one of India's most successful hoteliers, establishing the Oberoi Maidens and the Imperial Hotel on Janpath in New Delhi. These hotels quickly became hubs for elite negotiations and social gatherings, catering to British officials, Indian princes, and the growing Indian professional class. Oberoi's establishments were known for their high standards of service and luxurious amenities, setting new benchmarks for hospitality in India. By creating these institutions, Oberoi and other Sikh entrepreneurs were not merely providing services; they were creating spaces where Indians could assert their social and economic status on equal terms with the British, eroding British monopolies in high-end commerce and fostering Indian agency in the urban economy. The Sikh presence in New Delhi's commercial sector extended beyond hospitality. Sikh businessmen established trading companies, transportation firms, and manufacturing enterprises that contributed to the city's economic development. They were particularly prominent in the construction-related industries, supplying materials and services for the ongoing development of the city. This commercial success was built on the networks and reputation established during the construction of the new capital, demonstrating how the experience gained in building New Delhi provided a foundation for broader economic participation. The political influence of the Sikh community in New Delhi grew more slowly but eventually became equally significant. During the colonial period, Sikhs were relatively underrepresented in the political institutions of New Delhi, which were dominated by the British and by Hindus from more established political families. However, as the independence movement gained momentum, Sikh leaders began to play more prominent roles in national politics. The most significant example of Sikh political ascendancy in New Delhi was Sardar Baldev Singh, who became India's first Defence Minister in 1947. Baldev Singh's rise to this position was both symbolic and practical. Symbolically, it represented the recognition of the Sikh community's contribution to India, particularly their military service and their role in building the nation's capital. Practically, it placed a Sikh leader in charge of the nation's defense at a critical moment in its history, as it faced the challenges of partition and the integration of princely states. Baldev Singh's tenure as Defence Minister was particularly significant given the historical context. He was responsible for managing the defense of India during the traumatic period of partition, when millions of people were displaced and violence erupted across the country. He oversaw the division of the armed forces between India and Pakistan and worked to maintain stability during this turbulent transition. The fact that he carried out these duties from offices in buildings that had been constructed by Sikh contractors added a layer of historical irony to his position. The Sikh political influence in New Delhi extended beyond Baldev Singh. Sikh leaders became active in various political parties and played important roles in shaping independent India's policies. They were particularly vocal in advocating for the rights of minorities and for the fair distribution of resources among India's diverse communities. The transition from colonial rule to independence brought significant changes to New Delhi. The buildings that had been constructed as symbols of British imperial power were repurposed as seats of India's independent government. The Viceroy's House became the Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President's residence), the Council House became the Parliament House, and the secretariat buildings housed the ministries of the Indian government. This transition was seamless in part because the Sikh community, which had played such a crucial role in constructing these buildings, now had a stake in the new independent nation. The buildings were no longer symbols of foreign domination but became emblems of India's democratic aspirations. The Sikh contribution to this transformation was both literal and metaphorical, literal in the sense that they had built the physical structures, and metaphorical in the sense that they now participated in the political processes that these structures housed. The Sikh influence in New Delhi's commerce and politics demonstrates how the community's role evolved with the changing historical context. From builders of imperial power, they became stakeholders in independent India, contributing to the nation's economic development and political governance. This evolution reflects the broader trajectory of the Sikh community in modern India, from subjects of colonial rule to citizens of an independent democracy. The legacy of Sikh influence in New Delhi continues to this day. The commercial establishments founded by Sikh entrepreneurs remain prominent features of the city's landscape, and Sikh politicians continue to play important roles in national and local governance. The community's contribution to New Delhi's development, both physical and institutional, stands as a testament to their adaptability, enterprise, and commitment to the nation's progress. The inauguration of New Delhi in 1931 by Lord Irwin was a grand affair, marked by ceremonies and celebrations that befit the status of the new imperial capital. However, the event was muted by the economic woes of the Great Depression and the rising tide of Indian nationalism, which cast a shadow over the British Raj. Within just sixteen years, India would gain independence, and the symbols of imperial power that the British had so carefully constructed would be repurposed as emblems of a democratic nation. The transition from colonial capital to independent India's seat of government was remarkably smooth, in part because the buildings and infrastructure of New Delhi were well-suited to their new purpose. The broad avenues and monumental buildings that had been designed to impress and intimidate now served as stages for democratic processes and celebrations of national unity. The Viceroy's House became the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the residence of India's President; Kingsway became Rajpath, the ceremonial avenue where the Republic Day parade is held; and the secretariat buildings became the North and South Blocks, housing the Home Ministry and Defence Ministry respectively. This transition was not merely symbolic; it was facilitated by the very people who had built New Delhi. Sikh leaders like Sardar Baldev Singh, India's first Defence Minister, now occupied offices in buildings that their community had constructed, overseeing the defense of a nation that was no longer ruled by the British. This historical irony underscores the complex legacy of New Delhi's construction, a legacy that has often been obscured by conventional historical narratives. Traditional histories of New Delhi have predominantly focused on the British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, celebrating their vision and design while overlooking the essential contributions of the thousands who actually built the city. This narrative, perpetuated in both Western and some Indian histories, represents a form of historical amnesia that obscures a fundamental truth: New Delhi was not merely designed by the British but was physically constructed by the Sikh community, whose entrepreneurial spirit, technical expertise, and immense personal sacrifice transformed imperial dreams into concrete reality. Recognising this Sikh contribution is not merely a matter of historical accuracy; it is a way of honoring the thousands of people whose labor and sacrifice created one of the world's great capital cities. It is also a way of understanding New Delhi not as a British imposition on the Indian landscape but as a product of complex cultural and technical exchanges, of collaboration as well as conflict, of imperial vision as well as local expertise.The legacy of the Sikh builders of New Delhi continues to shape the city today. The buildings they constructed remain the seat of India's government, hosting the democratic processes that define the world's largest democracy. The commercial establishments they founded continue to thrive, contributing to the city's economic vitality. And the political influence they established continues to be felt in the corridors of power. In reclaiming this narrative, we gain a more nuanced understanding of New Delhi's history and character. We see it not as a symbol of colonial domination but as a testament to human endeavour and cultural exchange. We recognise that while the British provided the vision and the resources, it was the Sikh community that provided the expertise, labor, and sacrifice that turned that vision into reality. The story of New Delhi's construction is ultimately a story of resilience and adaptation, of a community that, despite the challenges of colonial rule, managed to carve out a space for itself and leave an indelible mark on India's landscape. It is a story that deserves to be told and remembered, not just for its historical significance but for the light it sheds on the complex processes that shape our built environment and our collective memory. As New Delhi continues to evolve and grow, facing the challenges of the 21st century, it carries with it the legacy of its Sikh builders, a legacy of enterprise, craftsmanship, and resilience that continues to define the character of India's capital city. From the broad avenues of Lutyens' Delhi to the bustling markets of Connaught Place, from the grandeur of Rashtrapati Bhavan to the quiet dignity of the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara, the imprint of the Sikh community is visible for those who care to look, a reminder that great cities are not just designed by architects but built by the hands and hearts of countless workers and craftsmen. In the final analysis, the story of New Delhi's construction is not just a British story or a Sikh story but an Indian story, a complex tapestry of vision and labour, of ambition and sacrifice, of imperial dreams and democratic aspirations. It is a story that reflects the broader history of modern India, with all its contradictions and complexities, its tragedies and triumphs. And in recognising the Sikh contribution to this story, we honour not just a community but the enduring spirit of human endeavour that shapes our world.
Lutyens' initial design for New Delhi was heavily influenced by European classical traditions, particularly the garden city movement and the principles of Beaux-Arts urban planning. He envisioned a city of broad avenues, geometrically planned, with monumental buildings arranged along axial vistas. The centrepiece of his design was the Viceroy's House, positioned atop Raisina Hill, with two grand avenues radiating from it, one leading toward the historic city of Delhi, and the other toward a ceremonial plaza (later known as India Gate). Baker's contribution was equally significant. His designs for the secretariat buildings, massive structures flanking the avenue leading up to the Viceroy's House, were intended to symbolise the bureaucratic might of the British Empire. These buildings, with their classical proportions and elaborate ornamentation, were designed to impress and intimidate, conveying the power and permanence of British rule. However, as the planning progressed, both architects began to incorporate elements of Indian architecture into their designs, partly at the insistence of Lord Hardinge, who believed that the new capital should reflect its Indian context. This led to the development of what came to be known as the "Delhi Order", a fusion of European classical forms with traditional Indian architectural elements such as chhajjas (overhanging eaves), jalis (perforated stone screens), and chhatris (elevated domed pavilions). The planning process was not without conflicts and controversies. Lutyens and Baker had differing visions for the layout of the city, particularly regarding the gradient of the avenue leading up to Raisina Hill. Baker's design resulted in a steeper gradient than Lutyens intended, which meant that the Viceroy's House was partially obscured from view along the main approach, a compromise that Lutyens reportedly resented for the rest of his life. Despite these differences, the overall plan for New Delhi was finalised by 1913, and construction began soon after. The British envisioned a twenty-year timeline for the project, with the new capital officially inaugurated in 1931. The scale of the undertaking was staggering: it involved levelling hills, draining marshes, laying miles of roads, and constructing dozens of major buildings, all while creating the infrastructure necessary to support a modern city. To understand why the Sikh community played such a crucial role in the construction of New Delhi, it is necessary to examine the historical context of the Sikhs in the early 20th century. The Sikh community, centred in the Punjab region, had developed a unique relationship with the British colonial power and possessed specific characteristics that positioned them perfectly to undertake the massive construction project. The Sikh religion was founded in the late 15th century by Guru Nanak in the Punjab region of South Asia. Over the subsequent centuries, the Sikh community developed into a distinct religious and cultural group, characterized by its emphasis on equality, hard work, and community service. By the early 19th century, the Sikhs had established their own empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, which controlled much of the Punjab and surrounding regions. However, this empire was annexed by the British after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849. Following the annexation of Punjab, the British initially viewed the Sikh community with suspicion. However, this attitude changed dramatically after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. While many Indian soldiers (sepoys) joined the rebellion against British rule, Sikh soldiers largely remained loyal to the British. This loyalty did not go unnoticed, and the British began to cultivate the Sikhs as a "martial race", a term used to describe ethnic groups believed to possess qualities such as bravery, loyalty, and physical strength that made them ideal for military service. The British policy toward the Sikhs was characterized by a combination of patronage and pragmatism. They recruited heavily from the Sikh community for the Indian Army, creating Sikh regiments that would become renowned for their bravery and effectiveness. The British also implemented land settlement policies in Punjab that favoured Sikh landowners, creating a class of prosperous Sikh farmers who accumulated capital and influence. By the early 20th century, the Sikh community had developed a reputation for several key attributes that would prove invaluable in the construction of New Delhi:
1. Engineering and Construction Expertise: The Punjab region had seen extensive infrastructure development under British rule, including the construction of railways, canals, and roads. Many Sikhs had gained experience working on these projects, developing skills in engineering, project management, and large-scale construction. The North-Western Railway and the extensive canal system in Punjab were particularly important training grounds for Sikh contractors and engineers.
2. Entrepreneurial Spirit: Sikh landowners in Punjab had accumulated significant capital through agriculture. Many of them invested this capital in business ventures, including construction contracting. The Sikh community developed a reputation for business acumen and entrepreneurial risk-taking, qualities that were essential for the massive undertaking of building New Delhi.
3. Organisational Capacity: The Sikh community had strong internal structures based on the principles of the Sikh religion. Gurdwaras (Sikh temples) served not only as religious centres but also as community hubs where resources could be mobilised and decisions made collectively. This organisational capacity would prove crucial in coordinating the massive workforce required for the construction of New Delhi.
4. Networks of Trust: Sikh society was characterised by strong kinship ties and community bonds. These networks of trust facilitated business partnerships and subcontracting arrangements, allowing Sikh contractors to form consortia and collaborate on large projects while maintaining high standards of quality and reliability.
5. Work Ethic: The Sikh religion places a strong emphasis on honest labour and hard work. This cultural value translated into a workforce known for its diligence, discipline, and productivity, qualities that were essential for meeting the ambitious timelines of the New Delhi project.
These factors combined to create a Sikh community that was uniquely positioned to take on the challenge of building New Delhi. When the British announced their plans for the new capital, Sikh contractors and entrepreneurs were ready and able to step in and provide the expertise, labor, and resources needed to turn imperial visions into reality.
The creation of New Delhi required not just vision and labour, but land, vast tracts of it. The process of land acquisition for the new capital was fraught with controversy, particularly concerning the appropriation of lands belonging to the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara, a site of immense religious significance to the Sikh community. The Rakab Ganj Gurdwara's history dates back to 1675, when Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, was executed in Chandni Chowk on the orders of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. The Guru had been arrested for defending the rights of Hindus who were being forcibly converted to Islam. After his execution, his followers secretly retrieved his body under cover of darkness and cremated it at the site where the gurdwara now stands. To avoid detection, they created a pyre and set fire to it, then placed the Guru's body on it. When the pyre had burned down, they collected the ashes and dispersed them in the Yamuna River. Over the centuries, this site evolved into a significant place of worship for the Sikh community. The Rakab Ganj Gurdwara was established there, encompassing approximately 100 acres of land that included orchards and fields. These lands were vital for the gurdwara's economic self-sufficiency, as the crops grown there supported the gurdwara's operations, including the continuous recitation of scriptures (akhand paths) and the provision of community meals (langar). When the British surveyors began planning the layout of New Delhi, they identified Raisina Hill and its surrounding areas as ideal for the new capital's centrepiece, the Viceroy's House and the secretariat buildings. Unfortunately for the Sikh community, this area included lands belonging to the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara. Under the Land Acquisition Act of 1894, the British government invoked eminent domain to acquire the land needed for the new capital. The compensation offered to the gurdwara for its 100 acres was a paltry ₹2 lakh (200,000 rupees), a fraction of the land's actual value, which was estimated to be at least ten times that amount. Even more significantly, this compensation completely ignored the spiritual and historical value of the land to the Sikh community. The proposed appropriation sparked immediate and fierce resistance from the Sikh community. Sikh leaders, including Bhai Randhir Singh, petitioned the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, protesting the acquisition. In one petition, they described the plan as "building a throne on a martyr's pyre," highlighting the profound sacrilege of constructing the seat of British power on land sanctified by the Guru's sacrifice. The nascent Akali Dal, a Sikh political organisation founded in 1920 but with roots in earlier Sikh activism, mobilised protests against the land acquisition. They organised satyagrahas (non-violent protests), with women and children forming human chains around the gurdwara to prevent British officials from taking possession of the land. These protests attracted widespread attention and support from the Sikh community across Punjab and beyond. British records from the period note "Sikh agitation" causing significant delays in the surveying and acquisition process. The protests were effective enough to force some concessions from the British authorities. The boundary of the acquired land was adjusted to preserve the main gurdwara building, reducing the amount taken from 100 acres to approximately 80 acres. However, the majority of the gurdwara's lands were still appropriated. The irony of the situation was profound. The very earth, infused with the ashes of Guru Tegh Bahadur, became the foundation for Lutyens' dome atop the Viceroy's House, a symbol of Christian monarchy and British imperial power. Sikh oral histories from the period recount visions of the Guru's spirit haunting the construction site, and some Sikhs believed that the project would be cursed due to this desecration. Today, the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara stands as a defiant enclave amid the Rashtrapati Bhavan gardens (the former Viceroy's House), its dome peeking over security barriers. It serves as a constant reminder of the contested history of New Delhi's creation and the sacrifices made by the Sikh community. The gurdwara's presence in the heart of India's political power centre is a microcosm of Sikh endurance and resilience, a testament to a community that has maintained its identity and institutions despite centuries of challenges. The Rakab Ganj land controversy set the tone for the construction of New Delhi. It established a pattern of Sikh contribution and sacrifice that would be repeated throughout the two decades of construction. The city rose not on neutral ground but on contested Sikh soil, its grandeur subsidised by communal grief and loss. This foundational act underscores the complex and often painful relationship between the British imperial project and the Sikh community, a relationship characterised by both collaboration and conflict, patronage and exploitation. While Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker provided the conceptual designs for New Delhi, it was the Sikh contractors who transformed these visions into physical reality. At the forefront of this effort was Sir Sobha Singh (1890-1978), often referred to as the "Maker of New Delhi," whose life and career exemplify the Sikh contribution to the creation of India's modern capital. Sobha Singh was born in 1890 in Sargodha, a town in Punjab that is now part of Pakistan. His father, Sujan Singh, was a modest contractor who worked on various construction projects in Punjab. From an early age, Sobha was exposed to the world of construction, learning the basics of the trade from his father. By the time he was a young man, he had gained valuable experience working on canal projects in Punjab, where he absorbed the rhythms of earth-moving, stone-cutting, and monsoon-proofing, skills that would prove invaluable in the construction of New Delhi. In 1911, at the age of 21, Sobha Singh arrived in Delhi with just ₹500 in his pocket. He partnered with his father to bid on construction contracts for the new capital. Their firm, initially called Sujan Singh & Sons (later renamed Sobha Singh & Sons), secured its first major contract for site levelling on Raisina Hill, a Herculean task involving the removal of 2 million tons of rock using dynamite and manual labour. This project required 500 workers and took two years to complete, but its successful execution established the reputation of Sobha Singh and his firm as reliable and capable contractors. Over the next two decades, Sobha Singh & Sons secured 28 major contracts for the construction of New Delhi, outbidding European rivals through local knowledge, efficient management, and the extensive networks of the Sikh community. Among the most significant projects undertaken by Sobha Singh were:
1. India Gate (Originally the All-India War Memorial): Perhaps the most iconic symbol of New Delhi, India Gate was a 42-meter arch built in memory of Indian soldiers who died fighting for the British Empire during World War I. Sobha Singh's firm was responsible for its construction, using Bharatpur sandstone and inscribing it with the names of 13,000 war dead, many of whom were Sikhs from regiments like the 36th Sikhs. Sobha innovated by establishing on-site kilns for lime mortar, reducing import costs by 30%, and employed 2,000 artisans to create the bas-reliefs depicting ancient battles, ironically including Sikh warriors among them.
2. Sansad Bhavan (The Parliament House): This circular building, designed by Herbert Baker, featured a massive 100-foot dome that presented significant engineering challenges. Sobha Singh managed the construction of this dome, using Persian wheels to hoist the 500-ton keystone into place. The project was complicated by labour strikes in the 1920s, but Sobha's firm managed to complete it on schedule.
3. North and South Blocks: These twin secretariat buildings, flanking the avenue leading up to the Viceroy's House, were among the largest structures in New Delhi. Sobha Singh's crews laid 1.5 million bricks for these buildings, integrating jalis (perforated stone screens) for ventilation that cooled the interiors by up to 10 degrees Celsius, a crucial adaptation to Delhi's extreme climate.
4. Residential Bungalows: In addition to the major government buildings, Sobha Singh constructed numerous bungalows for British officials in the Lutyens Bungalow Zone. These low-slung, stucco-clad buildings with collonaded verandas were designed to provide comfortable living quarters for the British administrators of imperial India.
Sobha Singh was not alone in his contributions to the construction of New Delhi. He was part of a broader network of Sikh contractors who worked on various aspects of the project. This network included:
1. Sujan Singh (1860-1941): Sobha Singh's father, who laid the groundwork for many of the family's successes. A veteran of Lahore's canal colonies, Sujan Singh pioneered rock-blasting techniques on Raisina Hill, using Sikh sappers from the Bengal Lancers for precision. His firm built the India Gate forecourt and early bungalows, introducing modular timber framing that sped construction by 40%. Honoured with the Kaisar-i-Hind medal, Sujan's ethos, "Build as if for the Guru", infused ethical labor practices, like weekly hazuri (devotional breaks) for workers.
2. Sardar Mohan Singh (1880-1950s): From Rawalpindi, Mohan Singh commanded the construction of the North Block, Baker's administrative colossus. Contracting in 1913, he oversaw 3,000 workers quarrying Agra sandstone, navigating delays caused by the 1918 influenza pandemic by rotating shifts. His portfolio extended to the presidential estate's stables (housing 200 horses) and irrigation channels, where he innovated aqueducts drawing from the Western Yamuna Canal. As Sardar Bahadur, Mohan funded relief efforts for victims of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, embodying the contractor's dual role as builder and patriot.
3. Baisakha Singh (1885-1940s): A native of Peshawar, Baisakha Singh was responsible for constructing portions of the North Block and numerous private residences in the Lutyens Zone. His crews installed the city's first electric sub-stations, powering arc lights along Rajpath. Known for his expertise in marble inlays in the Viceregal Lodge, Baisakha Singh's firm frequently subcontracted with Sobha Singh during monsoon seasons, sharing 500 wagons on the dedicated Delhi-Ridge railway.
4. Dharam Singh Sethi (1875-1930s): Known as the "Stone King," Dharam Singh Sethi monopolised the supply of building materials, shipping 2 million tons of stone from Dholpur's quarries via his own fleet of 100 locomotives. From Dera Ismail Khan, he weathered the 1922 floods by stockpiling materials in Agra, ensuring an uninterrupted supply for chhatris and jalis. His wealth funded schools in Punjab, but tragedy struck in 1925 when a quarry collapse killed 50 workers, prompting safety reforms that were adopted empire-wide.
5. Narain Singh (1890-1960s): Narain Singh specialised in infrastructure, paving 200 miles of metalled roads with Punjab basalt. He engineered gradients suitable for horse-drawn tongas and later automobiles, and his drainage systems, with 50 culverts, averted floods in 1930, earning imperial commendation.
6. Ranjit Singh (1880s-1940s): A scion of a Lahore family, Ranjit Singh specialised in ancillary works, erecting the National Stadium (now Dhyan Chand National Stadium) and 200 staff quarters. His brick kilns at Okhla produced 10 million fired bricks, using Sikh kar-seva (voluntary labour) for efficiency.
7. Ram Singh Kabli (1870s-1930s): From Kabuli village, Ram Singh Kabli handled elevations, building the Jaipur Column and war memorials. His timber expertise sourced Burmese teak for Parliament's doors.
8. Teja Singh Malik (1895-1970s): The youngest of the major Sikh contractors, Teja Singh Malik focused on utilities, laying water mains from Haiderpur and sewers with terracotta pipes. A World War I veteran, he mobilised 5,000 ex-soldiers, blending military discipline with construction pace.
Together, these contractors formed what contemporaries dubbed a "consortium of Sardars," controlling the supply chains, executing the contracts, and mitigating the risks involved in the massive construction project. They were bound by kinship ties, shared cultural values, and mutual business interests, forming a self-sustaining network that could mobilise resources on a scale unmatched by other contractors in India at the time. By 1925, this network of Sikh contractors employed approximately 15,000 Sikh workers, whose wages flowed back to Punjab, contributing to the region's economic development. Their success was based on a combination of technical expertise, efficient management, and the ability to mobilise large numbers of workers through community networks. The Sikh contractors were not merely builders; they were innovators who adapted European construction techniques to Indian conditions. They developed new methods for stone cutting, brick making, and concrete mixing that were suited to the local climate and available materials. They also introduced safety measures and labour practices that were more advanced than those commonly used in India at the time, reflecting the Sikh emphasis on the dignity and value of honest labour. The contribution of these Sikh builders to the creation of New Delhi cannot be overstated. While Lutyens and Baker provided the designs, it was the Sikh contractors who translated these designs into physical reality, overcoming numerous challenges and obstacles in the process. Their legacy is visible today in every major building and avenue of New Delhi, a testament to their skill, enterprise, and perseverance. The construction of New Delhi was one of the most ambitious building projects of the 20th century, and it faced numerous challenges that tested the limits of engineering, logistics, and human endurance. The scale of the project was staggering: it involved the construction of a completely new city spread over 1,000 acres, encompassing 40 miles of tree-lined avenues, 1,500 buildings (from palatial bungalows to massive secretariats), and infrastructure designed to serve a projected population of 100,000. The project required 3 million cubic feet of sandstone, 1 million tons of lime, and a workforce that peaked at 25,000 workers, figures that dwarfed contemporary projects like the founding of Canberra, Australia. The geographical and environmental challenges were formidable. The chosen site for New Delhi was characterised by rocky terrain, particularly on Raisina Hill where the Viceroy's House was to be built. Removing this rock required extensive blasting with dynamite, a dangerous and labour-intensive process. The region also suffered from water scarcity, necessitating the construction of a 40-mile canal from the Yamuna River to supply water for both construction and the future city's needs. The subtropical climate of Delhi presented additional challenges. The extreme heat of summer, followed by the monsoon rains, made construction difficult during large parts of the year. The British architects had to adapt their designs to these conditions, incorporating features like punkahs (large swinging fans), verandas, and jalis (perforated stone screens) for ventilation. The Sikh contractors, drawing on their experience in Punjab, developed construction techniques that could withstand these climatic challenges, such as special foundations that could withstand monsoon flooding and roofing materials that provided insulation against the heat. Logistical challenges were equally daunting. The construction site was remote from the sources of building materials, requiring the establishment of efficient supply chains. The Sikh contractors, particularly Dharam Singh Sethi, who was known as the "Stone King," established dedicated transportation systems, including a fleet of 100 locomotives, to bring stone from quarries in Dholpur and Agra. They also set up brick kilns and lime kilns near the construction site to reduce transportation costs and ensure a steady supply of materials. The project was also affected by broader historical events. World War I (1914-1918) diverted resources and attention away from the construction of New Delhi, causing delays and increasing costs. The influenza pandemic of 1918 further disrupted construction, as many workers fell ill or died. The Indian independence movement, which gained momentum during the 1920s, created political uncertainties that affected the project's timeline and budget. Perhaps the greatest challenge, however, was the human cost of the construction. At its peak, the project employed over 25,000 workers, predominantly Sikh and Punjabi recruits who were housed in makeshift camps on the construction site. These camps were characterised by overcrowding and poor sanitation, making them breeding grounds for diseases. In 1921, a bubonic plague outbreak ravaged these construction camps, claiming between 3,000 and 5,000 lives. The plague, part of the Third Plague Pandemic that ravaged India from 1896 to the 1920s, hit the construction camps particularly hard due to their overcrowded conditions and poor sanitation. The British response to the outbreak was slow and inadequate, with priority given to protecting European officials and workers while Indian workers were left to fend for themselves. Sikh oral histories from the period describe the horror of the plague outbreak, with bodies piling up faster than they could be cremated or buried. The Sikh contractors, particularly Sobha Singh, took matters into their own hands, organising medical camps and cremation facilities to deal with the crisis. The Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC), the governing body of Sikh gurdwara, also assisted, organising langars (community kitchens) and medical relief for the affected workers. The plague outbreak was not the only tragedy to strike the construction site. Accidents were common, particularly during the blasting operations on Raisina Hill. Historical records indicate that approximately 200 workers died in falls and blasting accidents between 1915 and 1920. Many more suffered from silicosis, a lung disease caused by inhaling silica dust during stone cutting operations, which blackened their lungs and eventually led to premature death. The living conditions of the construction workers were harsh. They were housed in bamboo lean-tos without proper sanitation, and their daily diet consisted of simple rations of dal (lentils) and roti (flatbread) distributed at dawn. They worked long hours, from sunrise to sunset, for wages that were half of what European workers received. Women and children were also part of the workforce, with women often involved in sifting rubble and children hawking sherbet (a sweet drink) to the workers. Despite these hardships, the workers demonstrated remarkable resilience. They were recruited through community networks, often by jathedars (community leaders) who vouched for their reliability. The Sikh principles of honest labour and community service helped sustain them through the difficult conditions. The gurdwaras established in the construction camps provided not only spiritual sustenance but also practical support, including meals and medical care. The human cost of building New Delhi is a sobering reminder of the sacrifices made by thousands of workers, many of whom remain nameless in historical accounts. Their labour, extracted under difficult and often dangerous conditions, was the foundation upon which the grand edifices of imperial power were built. The Sikh contractors, while themselves becoming wealthy and influential, were acutely aware of this human cost and took steps to alleviate the suffering of the workers, establishing a tradition of corporate social responsibility that was ahead of its time. The challenges faced during the construction of New Delhi, geographical, environmental, logistical, and human, were overcome through a combination of engineering ingenuity, organisational skill, and sheer perseverance. The Sikh contractors and workers demonstrated remarkable adaptability and resilience, turning the British vision of an imperial capital into a physical reality. Their achievement stands as a testament to human capability in the face of adversity, even as it raises questions about the human cost of grand architectural projects and the inequalities of colonial labour practices. One of the most distinctive features of New Delhi is its architectural style, a fusion of European classical forms with traditional Indian elements that came to be known as the "Delhi Order." While this style is often attributed to the British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, the implementation of this architectural vision owed much to Sikh craftsmanship and technical expertise. Lutyens initially approached the design of New Delhi with a strong Eurocentric bias, favouring classical European forms and rejecting what he initially considered the "chaotic" architecture of India. However, under the influence of Lord Hardinge, who believed that the new capital should reflect its Indian context, Lutyens gradually began to incorporate Indian architectural elements into his designs. This led to the development of the Delhi Order, which combined classical European proportions with Indian decorative elements such as chhajjas (overhanging eaves), jalis (perforated stone screens), and chhatris (elevated domed pavilions). The implementation of this hybrid architectural style required craftsmen who were skilled in both European building techniques and traditional Indian craftsmanship. The Sikh contractors and artisans proved to be ideally suited for this task, bringing with them a deep understanding of both traditions. One of the most prominent examples of Sikh craftsmanship in New Delhi is the woodwork in many of the major buildings, particularly in Parliament House (Sansad Bhavan). Giani Ram Singh, a master carpenter from Punjab, was responsible for the exquisite woodwork and interiors in these buildings. His work combined European joinery techniques with traditional Indian decorative motifs, creating interiors that were both functional and aesthetically pleasing. The doors, panelling, and furniture he crafted were not merely decorative but were designed to withstand Delhi's extreme climate, with materials and finishes chosen for their durability and resistance to heat and humidity. The stone carving in New Delhi's buildings also bears the mark of Sikh craftsmanship. Sikh artisans from Punjab, who had generations of experience in carving the sandstone and marble of the region's historic buildings, were brought in to work on the new capital. They adapted their traditional techniques to the classical forms demanded by Lutyens and Baker, creating a unique fusion of styles. The influence of Sikh craftsmanship extended beyond decorative elements to structural and functional aspects of the buildings. The Sikh contractors, drawing on their experience in Punjab, introduced several innovations that improved the functionality and comfort of the buildings:
1. Ventilation Systems: Delhi's extreme heat made ventilation a critical concern in building design. The Sikh contractors adapted traditional Indian cooling techniques, such as jalis and jaalis (perforated screens), to the classical forms of the new buildings. These elements allowed for natural ventilation while providing shade from the sun, cooling the interiors by up to 10 degrees Celsius. They also incorporated rooftop water storage and fountains that used evaporative cooling to lower temperatures.
2. Roofing Techniques: The flat roofs commonly used in European architecture were ill-suited to Delhi's monsoon rains. The Sikh contractors modified these designs, incorporating subtle slopes and improved drainage systems that could handle heavy rainfall while maintaining the classical appearance demanded by the British architects.
3. Foundation Engineering: The rocky terrain of Raisina Hill presented significant challenges for foundation engineering. The Sikh contractors, drawing on their experience with canal construction in Punjab, developed innovative foundation techniques that could anchor the massive buildings securely to the rock while providing insulation against ground heat.
4. Material Selection: The Sikh contractors played a crucial role in selecting and sourcing materials that were both aesthetically pleasing and suited to local conditions. They chose sandstone from Dholpur and marble from Agra, not just for their beauty but for their durability and ability to withstand Delhi's climate. They also developed new techniques for treating and finishing these materials to enhance their longevity.
The architectural fusion that characterises New Delhi was not merely a matter of aesthetics; it was a practical response to the challenges of building in India's climate and context. The Sikh contractors and artisans played a crucial role in this process, translating the abstract designs of the British architects into buildings that were both beautiful and functional, both imperial in their grandeur and Indian in their adaptation to local conditions. This architectural legacy continues to define New Delhi today. The buildings constructed during this period, from the Rashtrapati Bhavan (formerly the Viceroy's House) to the secretariat buildings (North and South Blocks) to India Gate, remain among the most recognisable symbols of India. Their distinctive style, a fusion of European classical forms and Indian elements, reflects not just the vision of the British architects but also the craftsmanship and technical expertise of the Sikh builders who brought that vision to life. The Sikh influence on New Delhi's architecture extends beyond the major government buildings to the city's overall layout and infrastructure. The wide avenues, tree-lined boulevards, and carefully planned residential areas that characterise New Delhi were not merely designed on paper but were implemented on the ground by Sikh contractors who understood the practical challenges of urban development in India. Their expertise in drainage, road construction, and water supply systems ensured that the new capital would be not just beautiful but functional and livable. In recognising the Sikh contribution to New Delhi's architecture, we gain a more nuanced understanding of the city's character. New Delhi is not merely a British creation imposed on the Indian landscape; it is a hybrid product of collaboration between British imperial vision and Indian craftsmanship, between European architectural traditions and Indian building techniques, between the ambitions of colonial rulers and the expertise of local builders. This hybridity is perhaps the most enduring legacy of New Delhi's construction, a testament to the complex cultural and technical exchanges that characterised the colonial encounter. The Sikh contribution to New Delhi extended far beyond the physical construction of the city. As the new capital took shape, members of the Sikh community began to establish themselves in commerce and politics, gradually transforming their role from builders of imperial power to stakeholders in independent India. One of the most significant examples of Sikh entrepreneurial success in New Delhi was Rai Bahadur Mohan Singh Oberoi, who revolutionised the hospitality industry in India. Oberoi, who came from a modest background in Punjab, began his career as a clerk in a hotel in Shimla. Through hard work and business acumen, he rose to become one of India's most successful hoteliers, establishing the Oberoi Maidens and the Imperial Hotel on Janpath in New Delhi. These hotels quickly became hubs for elite negotiations and social gatherings, catering to British officials, Indian princes, and the growing Indian professional class. Oberoi's establishments were known for their high standards of service and luxurious amenities, setting new benchmarks for hospitality in India. By creating these institutions, Oberoi and other Sikh entrepreneurs were not merely providing services; they were creating spaces where Indians could assert their social and economic status on equal terms with the British, eroding British monopolies in high-end commerce and fostering Indian agency in the urban economy. The Sikh presence in New Delhi's commercial sector extended beyond hospitality. Sikh businessmen established trading companies, transportation firms, and manufacturing enterprises that contributed to the city's economic development. They were particularly prominent in the construction-related industries, supplying materials and services for the ongoing development of the city. This commercial success was built on the networks and reputation established during the construction of the new capital, demonstrating how the experience gained in building New Delhi provided a foundation for broader economic participation. The political influence of the Sikh community in New Delhi grew more slowly but eventually became equally significant. During the colonial period, Sikhs were relatively underrepresented in the political institutions of New Delhi, which were dominated by the British and by Hindus from more established political families. However, as the independence movement gained momentum, Sikh leaders began to play more prominent roles in national politics. The most significant example of Sikh political ascendancy in New Delhi was Sardar Baldev Singh, who became India's first Defence Minister in 1947. Baldev Singh's rise to this position was both symbolic and practical. Symbolically, it represented the recognition of the Sikh community's contribution to India, particularly their military service and their role in building the nation's capital. Practically, it placed a Sikh leader in charge of the nation's defense at a critical moment in its history, as it faced the challenges of partition and the integration of princely states. Baldev Singh's tenure as Defence Minister was particularly significant given the historical context. He was responsible for managing the defense of India during the traumatic period of partition, when millions of people were displaced and violence erupted across the country. He oversaw the division of the armed forces between India and Pakistan and worked to maintain stability during this turbulent transition. The fact that he carried out these duties from offices in buildings that had been constructed by Sikh contractors added a layer of historical irony to his position. The Sikh political influence in New Delhi extended beyond Baldev Singh. Sikh leaders became active in various political parties and played important roles in shaping independent India's policies. They were particularly vocal in advocating for the rights of minorities and for the fair distribution of resources among India's diverse communities. The transition from colonial rule to independence brought significant changes to New Delhi. The buildings that had been constructed as symbols of British imperial power were repurposed as seats of India's independent government. The Viceroy's House became the Rashtrapati Bhavan (the President's residence), the Council House became the Parliament House, and the secretariat buildings housed the ministries of the Indian government. This transition was seamless in part because the Sikh community, which had played such a crucial role in constructing these buildings, now had a stake in the new independent nation. The buildings were no longer symbols of foreign domination but became emblems of India's democratic aspirations. The Sikh contribution to this transformation was both literal and metaphorical, literal in the sense that they had built the physical structures, and metaphorical in the sense that they now participated in the political processes that these structures housed. The Sikh influence in New Delhi's commerce and politics demonstrates how the community's role evolved with the changing historical context. From builders of imperial power, they became stakeholders in independent India, contributing to the nation's economic development and political governance. This evolution reflects the broader trajectory of the Sikh community in modern India, from subjects of colonial rule to citizens of an independent democracy. The legacy of Sikh influence in New Delhi continues to this day. The commercial establishments founded by Sikh entrepreneurs remain prominent features of the city's landscape, and Sikh politicians continue to play important roles in national and local governance. The community's contribution to New Delhi's development, both physical and institutional, stands as a testament to their adaptability, enterprise, and commitment to the nation's progress. The inauguration of New Delhi in 1931 by Lord Irwin was a grand affair, marked by ceremonies and celebrations that befit the status of the new imperial capital. However, the event was muted by the economic woes of the Great Depression and the rising tide of Indian nationalism, which cast a shadow over the British Raj. Within just sixteen years, India would gain independence, and the symbols of imperial power that the British had so carefully constructed would be repurposed as emblems of a democratic nation. The transition from colonial capital to independent India's seat of government was remarkably smooth, in part because the buildings and infrastructure of New Delhi were well-suited to their new purpose. The broad avenues and monumental buildings that had been designed to impress and intimidate now served as stages for democratic processes and celebrations of national unity. The Viceroy's House became the Rashtrapati Bhavan, the residence of India's President; Kingsway became Rajpath, the ceremonial avenue where the Republic Day parade is held; and the secretariat buildings became the North and South Blocks, housing the Home Ministry and Defence Ministry respectively. This transition was not merely symbolic; it was facilitated by the very people who had built New Delhi. Sikh leaders like Sardar Baldev Singh, India's first Defence Minister, now occupied offices in buildings that their community had constructed, overseeing the defense of a nation that was no longer ruled by the British. This historical irony underscores the complex legacy of New Delhi's construction, a legacy that has often been obscured by conventional historical narratives. Traditional histories of New Delhi have predominantly focused on the British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, celebrating their vision and design while overlooking the essential contributions of the thousands who actually built the city. This narrative, perpetuated in both Western and some Indian histories, represents a form of historical amnesia that obscures a fundamental truth: New Delhi was not merely designed by the British but was physically constructed by the Sikh community, whose entrepreneurial spirit, technical expertise, and immense personal sacrifice transformed imperial dreams into concrete reality. Recognising this Sikh contribution is not merely a matter of historical accuracy; it is a way of honoring the thousands of people whose labor and sacrifice created one of the world's great capital cities. It is also a way of understanding New Delhi not as a British imposition on the Indian landscape but as a product of complex cultural and technical exchanges, of collaboration as well as conflict, of imperial vision as well as local expertise.The legacy of the Sikh builders of New Delhi continues to shape the city today. The buildings they constructed remain the seat of India's government, hosting the democratic processes that define the world's largest democracy. The commercial establishments they founded continue to thrive, contributing to the city's economic vitality. And the political influence they established continues to be felt in the corridors of power. In reclaiming this narrative, we gain a more nuanced understanding of New Delhi's history and character. We see it not as a symbol of colonial domination but as a testament to human endeavour and cultural exchange. We recognise that while the British provided the vision and the resources, it was the Sikh community that provided the expertise, labor, and sacrifice that turned that vision into reality. The story of New Delhi's construction is ultimately a story of resilience and adaptation, of a community that, despite the challenges of colonial rule, managed to carve out a space for itself and leave an indelible mark on India's landscape. It is a story that deserves to be told and remembered, not just for its historical significance but for the light it sheds on the complex processes that shape our built environment and our collective memory. As New Delhi continues to evolve and grow, facing the challenges of the 21st century, it carries with it the legacy of its Sikh builders, a legacy of enterprise, craftsmanship, and resilience that continues to define the character of India's capital city. From the broad avenues of Lutyens' Delhi to the bustling markets of Connaught Place, from the grandeur of Rashtrapati Bhavan to the quiet dignity of the Rakab Ganj Gurdwara, the imprint of the Sikh community is visible for those who care to look, a reminder that great cities are not just designed by architects but built by the hands and hearts of countless workers and craftsmen. In the final analysis, the story of New Delhi's construction is not just a British story or a Sikh story but an Indian story, a complex tapestry of vision and labour, of ambition and sacrifice, of imperial dreams and democratic aspirations. It is a story that reflects the broader history of modern India, with all its contradictions and complexities, its tragedies and triumphs. And in recognising the Sikh contribution to this story, we honour not just a community but the enduring spirit of human endeavour that shapes our world.
