- Jan 3, 2010
- 2,488
- 449
- 81
SIKHS IN THIRD MILLENIUM: THEIR ROLE IN CHANGING GLOBAL CIVILISATIONS
Col Dr Dalvinder Singh Grewal
Dean R & D, Desh Bhagat University
INTRODUCTION
Col Dr Dalvinder Singh Grewal
Dean R & D, Desh Bhagat University
INTRODUCTION
Old order changes, yielding place to the new (Tennyson). The universe changes continuously in a forward and positive movement, destroying un-essentials and creating essentials as per new requirements. World religions too have changed and will continue to change. Pagan religions gave way to modern religions; modern religions will get replaced by new religions with the new concepts and systems emerging based on the new requirements, so do civilizations. Many ancient civilizations, once glorious and powerful, exist no more. Where are Rome, Greece, Egypt, Persia, and Babylonia? In this milieu, Sikhism, the youngest religion of the world, has an open playfield to develop. Toynbee made the observation that “Sikh religion has the potential of ushering in a new and higher civilization in the third millennium which would be qualitatively different in its fundamental postulates from earlier civilizations, including the modern Western civilizations. " Sikhism thus has a very important role to play in ushering a new and higher civilization in the third millennium. Its importance increases further, especially in the times of the clash of civilizations.
PURPOSE OF STUDY
The purpose of this study is to assess the (a) direction of change of future civilization and the role of Sikhism in the change. (b) Capability and capacity of Sikhism to create qualitative differences in fundamental postulates in the existing civilizations (c) Role of Sikhism in the clash of civilizations. (d) Role of Sikhism in the Third Millennium.
DIRECTION OF CHANGE IN CIVILISATIONS
Advanced Learners’ Dictionary defines civilization as a human society with its own social organization and culture; it is the state of having an advanced level of social organization and a comfortable way of life with its sensible laws and customs.” Morgan in his book “Ancient Society” states, “Democracy in Government, brotherhood in Society, equality in rights and privileges, and universal education, foreshadow the next higher plane of society to which experience intelligence and knowledge are steadily tending. It will be the revival, in a higher form, of the liberty, equality, and fraternity of the ancient genes.” The classical standard of civilization is a legal mechanism designed to set the benchmark for the ascent of non-European states to the ranks of the civilized ‘Family of Nations.' A state was civilized if its government was sufficiently stable and was able to protect the life, dignity, religion, liberty, and property of its citizens and foreigners.
Civilizations keep on changing, and this change is continuous. Arnold J. Toynbee (14 April 1889–22 October 1975) undertook the task of answering the question as to "how do the cultures, and the historical entities, arise, grow, and decay?” He, in his monumental ten-volume work, ‘A Study of History,' presented a history of the rise and fall of civilizations. He identified his civilizations according to cultural or religious rather than national criteria. Toynbee rejected Spengler's deterministic view that civilizations rise and fall according to a natural and inevitable cycle in which they live for 1,000 years. According to him, each of the historical entities, through its physical and historical environment and through its inner development, is faced with problems that it faces and is tested for. Its response to the changing situations decides its destiny. Rome imported great hordes of slaves from the East after the economic and social revolutions caused by the Second Punic War which in turn formed the base of a "universal church" and Roman universal state. Migrations of barbarians to England and other European nations changed their culture, which created a new type of British society, which spread in the world through the business route. The Franks gave up their language on the soil of Romanized Gaul. According to Toynbee, the life curves of cultures do not follow a fatally predetermined course, as they do according to Spengler. [1]
For Toynbee, a civilization might not continue to thrive, depending on the challenges it faced and its responses to them. Of the 21 civilizations Toynbee identified, sixteen were dead by 1940, and four of the remaining five were under severe pressure from the one named Western Christendom—or simply the West. He explained breakdowns of civilizations as a failure of creative power in the creative minority, which henceforth becomes a merely 'dominant' minority; that is followed by an answering withdrawal of allegiance and mimesis on the part of the majority; finally there is a consequent loss of social unity in the society as a whole[2]. Toynbee explained the decline due to their moral failure. [3].
Islam was initiated in Arab lands to withstand the onslaught of barbarians. It spread through faith in Mohammad, which later gave way to the sword. Intrusion by various hordes into India and the use of Indians by Islam under threat were the effects of the raids of Mahmud Gauri of Ghazni. Thus, the change of civilizations occurred with love, faith, liberty, equality, and fraternity in the origin and development stage and domination by force in the peak stages. None of these civilizations could stay at the helm because they resorted to barbarity and suppression of other societies and could not continue to develop love, faith in God, liberty, equality, and fraternity of humanity as a whole. Instead of creating peace and prosperity, they spread oppression and slavery. These civilizations are thus becoming outdated gradually and have entered into a clash among themselves.
Civilizations keep on changing, and this change is continuous. Arnold J. Toynbee (14 April 1889–22 October 1975) undertook the task of answering the question as to "how do the cultures, and the historical entities, arise, grow, and decay?” He, in his monumental ten-volume work, ‘A Study of History,' presented a history of the rise and fall of civilizations. He identified his civilizations according to cultural or religious rather than national criteria. Toynbee rejected Spengler's deterministic view that civilizations rise and fall according to a natural and inevitable cycle in which they live for 1,000 years. According to him, each of the historical entities, through its physical and historical environment and through its inner development, is faced with problems that it faces and is tested for. Its response to the changing situations decides its destiny. Rome imported great hordes of slaves from the East after the economic and social revolutions caused by the Second Punic War which in turn formed the base of a "universal church" and Roman universal state. Migrations of barbarians to England and other European nations changed their culture, which created a new type of British society, which spread in the world through the business route. The Franks gave up their language on the soil of Romanized Gaul. According to Toynbee, the life curves of cultures do not follow a fatally predetermined course, as they do according to Spengler. [1]
For Toynbee, a civilization might not continue to thrive, depending on the challenges it faced and its responses to them. Of the 21 civilizations Toynbee identified, sixteen were dead by 1940, and four of the remaining five were under severe pressure from the one named Western Christendom—or simply the West. He explained breakdowns of civilizations as a failure of creative power in the creative minority, which henceforth becomes a merely 'dominant' minority; that is followed by an answering withdrawal of allegiance and mimesis on the part of the majority; finally there is a consequent loss of social unity in the society as a whole[2]. Toynbee explained the decline due to their moral failure. [3].
Islam was initiated in Arab lands to withstand the onslaught of barbarians. It spread through faith in Mohammad, which later gave way to the sword. Intrusion by various hordes into India and the use of Indians by Islam under threat were the effects of the raids of Mahmud Gauri of Ghazni. Thus, the change of civilizations occurred with love, faith, liberty, equality, and fraternity in the origin and development stage and domination by force in the peak stages. None of these civilizations could stay at the helm because they resorted to barbarity and suppression of other societies and could not continue to develop love, faith in God, liberty, equality, and fraternity of humanity as a whole. Instead of creating peace and prosperity, they spread oppression and slavery. These civilizations are thus becoming outdated gradually and have entered into a clash among themselves.
CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS
What is the clash of civilizations?
Culture is a way of life. When the culture expands and includes tens of millions of people, it is called a civilization. There are hundreds of cultural groups but only a handful of civilizations. Huntington has identified seven or eight contemporary civilizations in the world. These include the Western (Europe and North America), the Slavic (Russia and Eastern Europe), the Islamic, the Chinese, the Hindu, the Japanese, the Latin American, and the African. Civilizations rise and fall with some frequency. Many ancient civilizations like Rome, Greece, Egypt, Persia, and Babylonia are no more. Arnold Toynbee studied 26 civilizations, and of that number, only some half a dozen survive today
Why a Clash of Civilizations?
Clashes occur due to unadjusted differences. Differences may be of history, language, culture, social life, and religion. Different civilizations have different views about the nature of Godhead (male or female, personal or impersonal, benevolent or malevolent), the nature of man (godlike or beast-like), and relations between God and man (intimate and friendly, or distant and authoritarian). Civilizations also differ with respect to the concept of the state, liberty, democracy, secularism, pluralism, tolerance, and the rule of law. Civilizations develop over centuries. Differences among them are deep-seated and will not quickly disappear [4].
Globalization and civilizations
The communications and the information revolution (known as modernization) that has engulfed the globe is a two-edged sword. On the one hand, the increased communications among peoples of the world narrows their differences and welds different cultures into a homogenous whole. People the world over begin to look, think, and act alike. On the other hand, people become more aware of their own special culture and how they are different from others. Muslims become more of Muslims, Hindus more of Hindus, Slavs more Slavs, and so on. People react to the globalizing influence by going back to their roots. Omar Sheikh, the accused murderer of Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl, was born and educated in England but found home in Islamic fundamentalism. Third, the modernization erodes local identities. The world over, people have lost affinity for the village, the neighborhood, and the family. Fundamentalist religious movements have captured the space thus vacated.
Why a Clash of Civilizations?
Clashes occur due to unadjusted differences. Differences may be of history, language, culture, social life, and religion. Different civilizations have different views about the nature of Godhead (male or female, personal or impersonal, benevolent or malevolent), the nature of man (godlike or beast-like), and relations between God and man (intimate and friendly, or distant and authoritarian). Civilizations also differ with respect to the concept of the state, liberty, democracy, secularism, pluralism, tolerance, and the rule of law. Civilizations develop over centuries. Differences among them are deep-seated and will not quickly disappear [4].
Globalization and civilizations
The communications and the information revolution (known as modernization) that has engulfed the globe is a two-edged sword. On the one hand, the increased communications among peoples of the world narrows their differences and welds different cultures into a homogenous whole. People the world over begin to look, think, and act alike. On the other hand, people become more aware of their own special culture and how they are different from others. Muslims become more of Muslims, Hindus more of Hindus, Slavs more Slavs, and so on. People react to the globalizing influence by going back to their roots. Omar Sheikh, the accused murderer of Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl, was born and educated in England but found home in Islamic fundamentalism. Third, the modernization erodes local identities. The world over, people have lost affinity for the village, the neighborhood, and the family. Fundamentalist religious movements have captured the space thus vacated.
The Future Course for Civilizations
Francis Fukuyama argued that the world had reached the 'end of history' in a Hegelian sense. Huntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post-Cold War period. Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had only reverted to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines. [5] Osama bin Laden said, "It is a war to the death between Islam and the West." "These events have divided the whole world into two sides. The side of believers and the side of infidels ... Every Muslim has to rush to make his religion victorious."
Samuel Huntington, in his book "The Clash of Civilizations," wrote, "In the 1990s Muslims have been far more involved in intergroup violence than the people of any other civilization. " Islam is a culture that has soared high; a millennium ago it was, in every way, more sophisticated than Christian Europe. But today Islamic culture tolerates terrorists and often uses them (as Pakistan does) for its own aggressive purposes. Pakistan, the protector of Obama and bin Laden for over 10 years, in fact, has long been a breeding, breathing, and brewing ground for terrorism. Almost no one seems to have noticed that even as the diplomatic dance goes on, Pakistan's Islamic terrorists are conducting business as usual. One would have imagined that the outrage over the Sept. 11 atrocity would have stalled them for a moment. Not so. On Oct. 2, only 21 days after suicide hijackers destroyed the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon, a suicide bomber crashed a car packed with explosives into the gate of the state legislature in Srinagar, the capital of Indian-administered Kashmir. Some 35 people died and about 70 were injured. Two more terrorists, disguised as police officers, entered the legislature and began shooting at random till they were killed. The Indian Parliament too was attacked. The international news media reported this briefly and then moved on, but that attack was heavy with significance. The central point is that responsibility was claimed by Jaish-e-Mohammad, an Islamic militant group based in Pakistan. For years, these killers have been trained and indoctrinated at camps in Pakistan, where they mingled with bin Laden's troops. The leaders of the government of Pakistan deny this is so, but no one believes them. And then came the Mumbai attack; a brazen show of state terrorism. Huntington questions:. Is it, then, the equal of a culture that doesn't tolerate terrorism?
Writes Huntington: “It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future." [6]
Silvio Berlusconi, the Premier of Italy, questioned the statement and said on Sept. 27: “Western civilization is superior to that of the Islamic world. We should be confident of the superiority of our civilization, which has given people widespread prosperity and guarantees respect for human rights and religion. This respect certainly does not exist in Islamic countries."
The War on Words has been going on: the war on terrorism too has been going on but terrorism is still growing. Earlier, India was the battleground for the terrorists. Since this breeding ground of terrorists gradually spread from Pakistan, spread to Saudi Arab, Iraq, Egypt, Chechnya and now even to US, Britain and other European countries, entire globe is in the grip of terrorism which tends to change the shape of civilizations. Huntington suggests a linkage between ‘Islamic civilization’ and violence: “ In Eurasia the great historic fault lines between civilizations are once more aflame. This is particularly true along the boundaries of the crescent-shaped Islamic bloc of nations from the bulge of Africa to central Asia. Violence also occurs between Muslims, on the one hand, and Orthodox Serbs in the Balkans, Jews in Israel, Hindus in India, Buddhists in Burma, and Catholics in the Philippines. Islam has bloody borders.”
Osama Bin Laden once said, "I offer a truce to them, with a commitment to stop operations against any state that vows to stop attacking Muslims or interfere in their affairs. Whoever rejects this truce and wants war, we are war's sons, and whoever wants this truce, here we bring it. The race is now between you, time, and European governments, which refuse to stop their attacks against Muslims. Do not blame us for what will happen, and we apologize to you in advance if you are among those killed. "We have a war of civilizations. Obama is dead, but the war has not ceased; it has rather aggravated after his death to take revenge. Samuel P. Huntington predicted it as an inevitable part of the post-Cold War world.
Huntington's clashing civilizations are perhaps best illustrated by the renewed conflict between Islam and the West. Much of the Islamic world perceives an all-out assault on the religion of Mohammed by Western culture, led by the United States and Europe. This perception has been reinforced by consistent western support for Israel (a western-made state in the midst of the lands of Islam), international demands for Iran to cease its nuclear program (led by nations that already possess nuclear technology) and the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan and now Syria and terrorist targeting in Pakistan through UAVs as part of a global war on terrorism that focuses virtually exclusively on Islamic fundamentalists.
Christianity and Islam are monotheistic and believe in only one mediator, i.e., Christ and Mohammed, respectively. They both have a belief in a single life, a single judgment, and eternal life either in heaven or hell. It is obvious that this theology of a single God, a single prophet, a single revelation, a single church or ummah, a single life, and a single judgment leads to intolerance. Non-Christians have been hounded by Christians and non-Muslims by Muslims. The Spanish Inquisition of the 16th century was an extreme case of Christian intolerance and persecution and forced conversion by Aurangzeb and can be stated as Muslim intolerance. [7]
Samuel Huntington, who also recognizes the shift from the Cold War environment dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union sees the future in less ambiguous terms, and theorizes that civilizational consciousness, will increase, resulting in a greater amount of conflict between civilizations more so than nation-states because of differences in basic political and moral values.
Huntington did note in his article that he was aware of differences of opinion and outlook within ‘civilizations’ but he appeared to think this was much less important than an apparently clear ‘clash’ of values norms, and beliefs which for him characterized the division ‘between’ the ‘West’ and ‘Islam’.
Since the clash of civilizations is a fact of the global environment and the basic political and moral values are falling to aggravate the situation, it is very important that the global community is provided with an alternative that becomes acceptable gradually. Sikhism has this ray of hope due to its qualitative and universal structure.
The major reasons for this clash of civilizations thus emerge as the cultural, ethical, moral, and political degradation and a sense of ignorance about the real human values. Misunderstanding and mistrust between communities in general have created intolerance and deep hatred, leading to wide-scale global terrorism and the conflict of civilizations. The need is to build bridges, create a wave of understanding and trust, develop tolerance, and inculcate political, cultural, ethical, and moral values. Where does the solution lie?
Arnold Toynbee said in 1960, "Mankind's religious future may be obscure; yet one thing can be foreseen. The living higher religions are going to influence each other more than even before in the days of increasing communication between all parts of the world and all branches of the human race. In this coming religious debate, the Sikh religion and its scripture, the Aad Granth, will have something of special value to the rest world.” [8] In light of the observation made by Toynbee, let us see the role of Sikhs in the clash of civilizations.
SIKHS IN CLASH OF CIVILISATIONS
Sikh identity
Dr Harnam Singh Shan describes Sikhs having their own spiritual and political capital (Ahl-al-Maqan) as Golden Temple (Harimandar) and the seat of God (Akal Takhat) at Amritsar; own Holy Scripture (Ahal-al-Kitab) Sri Guru Granth Sahib; having religion truly revealed to their head Guru Nanak (Ahl-al-Milla) with global fellowship of faith and cohesive community called sangat and panth; having firm faith in the doctrine of the holy word (shabad) (Ahl-i-Kalaam) and shabd-guru ;own language (Ahl-i-zaban) Punajbi and script Gurmukhi; own distinct flag/banner (Ahl-al-Nishan) Kesri Nishan Sahib with the Khalsa emblem (khanda), line of martyrs (Ahl-al-shahad), symbols of sovereign identity Ahl-al-shamshir (5 Ks including sword) and own usages, customs and a distinctive code of conduct (reht maryada) (Ahl-al-Sunnah). This all confirms the distinctive identity of Sikhs.
Huntington has not done justice to the position of Sikhs while defining various civilizations and has not given them an independent identity. He has confused the culture of Sikhs as a mixture of Hindu and Muslim cultures and identified them as Muslims. The Hindu and Islamic civilizations appear to be wholly defined by religion. This is not a factual justification. Since Huntington’s civilizations are primarily based on religions, it is important to identify Sikhs independently. Jonathan Fox has rightly identified them as such: “Since Huntington seems to be ambivalent about the African civilization and defines the Islamic civilization wholly on the basis of religion, these and all other Moslem groups are considered part of the Islamic civilization. The Druze, Baha'i, and Sikhs are groups that do not fit well into any of Huntington’s categories. Since the Druze and Baha’i religions are considered Islamic offshoots and the Sikh religion combines elements of the Islamic and Hindu faiths, ethnic groups of these three religions are considered here part of the Islamic civilization”. [9] In reality, things differ. Sikhs have a different identity of their own, different from Hindus and Muslims, though they are in minority.
Being a distinct religion and having a different way of life, Sikhism marked a deep rupture with the religious traditions of South Asia. As religion had permeated virtually all aspects of life into his part of the world till recent years, the introduction of the Sikh religion changed the very tenor and pulse of life in the subcontinent. No wonder the participation of the Sikhs in the socio-political and cultural life of the area has been eminently distinct in various ways. [10] It is different from Hinduism and Islam, as Guru Nanak himself declared his identity different from these two religions. Similarly, the ban put by various governments on Sikh identity symbols is also being fought vigorously. The ban on turban in France is one such well-propagated problem that the Sikhs have raised globally and got support from UN agencies.
Dorothy Field observed in 1914, "Sikhism is capable of a distinct position as a world religion, so long as the Sikhs maintain their distinctiveness. The religion is also one that should appeal to the occidental mind. It is essentially a practical religion. If judged pragmatically, … it would rank almost first in the world. Of no other religion can it be said that it has made a nation in so short a time. The religion of the Sikhs is one of the most interesting in India, possibly indeed in the whole world. That it should have transformed the outcaste Indian… into a fine and loyal warrior is little short of miracle.” [11]
Samuel Huntington, in his book "The Clash of Civilizations," wrote, "In the 1990s Muslims have been far more involved in intergroup violence than the people of any other civilization. " Islam is a culture that has soared high; a millennium ago it was, in every way, more sophisticated than Christian Europe. But today Islamic culture tolerates terrorists and often uses them (as Pakistan does) for its own aggressive purposes. Pakistan, the protector of Obama and bin Laden for over 10 years, in fact, has long been a breeding, breathing, and brewing ground for terrorism. Almost no one seems to have noticed that even as the diplomatic dance goes on, Pakistan's Islamic terrorists are conducting business as usual. One would have imagined that the outrage over the Sept. 11 atrocity would have stalled them for a moment. Not so. On Oct. 2, only 21 days after suicide hijackers destroyed the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon, a suicide bomber crashed a car packed with explosives into the gate of the state legislature in Srinagar, the capital of Indian-administered Kashmir. Some 35 people died and about 70 were injured. Two more terrorists, disguised as police officers, entered the legislature and began shooting at random till they were killed. The Indian Parliament too was attacked. The international news media reported this briefly and then moved on, but that attack was heavy with significance. The central point is that responsibility was claimed by Jaish-e-Mohammad, an Islamic militant group based in Pakistan. For years, these killers have been trained and indoctrinated at camps in Pakistan, where they mingled with bin Laden's troops. The leaders of the government of Pakistan deny this is so, but no one believes them. And then came the Mumbai attack; a brazen show of state terrorism. Huntington questions:. Is it, then, the equal of a culture that doesn't tolerate terrorism?
Writes Huntington: “It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future." [6]
Silvio Berlusconi, the Premier of Italy, questioned the statement and said on Sept. 27: “Western civilization is superior to that of the Islamic world. We should be confident of the superiority of our civilization, which has given people widespread prosperity and guarantees respect for human rights and religion. This respect certainly does not exist in Islamic countries."
The War on Words has been going on: the war on terrorism too has been going on but terrorism is still growing. Earlier, India was the battleground for the terrorists. Since this breeding ground of terrorists gradually spread from Pakistan, spread to Saudi Arab, Iraq, Egypt, Chechnya and now even to US, Britain and other European countries, entire globe is in the grip of terrorism which tends to change the shape of civilizations. Huntington suggests a linkage between ‘Islamic civilization’ and violence: “ In Eurasia the great historic fault lines between civilizations are once more aflame. This is particularly true along the boundaries of the crescent-shaped Islamic bloc of nations from the bulge of Africa to central Asia. Violence also occurs between Muslims, on the one hand, and Orthodox Serbs in the Balkans, Jews in Israel, Hindus in India, Buddhists in Burma, and Catholics in the Philippines. Islam has bloody borders.”
Osama Bin Laden once said, "I offer a truce to them, with a commitment to stop operations against any state that vows to stop attacking Muslims or interfere in their affairs. Whoever rejects this truce and wants war, we are war's sons, and whoever wants this truce, here we bring it. The race is now between you, time, and European governments, which refuse to stop their attacks against Muslims. Do not blame us for what will happen, and we apologize to you in advance if you are among those killed. "We have a war of civilizations. Obama is dead, but the war has not ceased; it has rather aggravated after his death to take revenge. Samuel P. Huntington predicted it as an inevitable part of the post-Cold War world.
Huntington's clashing civilizations are perhaps best illustrated by the renewed conflict between Islam and the West. Much of the Islamic world perceives an all-out assault on the religion of Mohammed by Western culture, led by the United States and Europe. This perception has been reinforced by consistent western support for Israel (a western-made state in the midst of the lands of Islam), international demands for Iran to cease its nuclear program (led by nations that already possess nuclear technology) and the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan and now Syria and terrorist targeting in Pakistan through UAVs as part of a global war on terrorism that focuses virtually exclusively on Islamic fundamentalists.
Christianity and Islam are monotheistic and believe in only one mediator, i.e., Christ and Mohammed, respectively. They both have a belief in a single life, a single judgment, and eternal life either in heaven or hell. It is obvious that this theology of a single God, a single prophet, a single revelation, a single church or ummah, a single life, and a single judgment leads to intolerance. Non-Christians have been hounded by Christians and non-Muslims by Muslims. The Spanish Inquisition of the 16th century was an extreme case of Christian intolerance and persecution and forced conversion by Aurangzeb and can be stated as Muslim intolerance. [7]
Samuel Huntington, who also recognizes the shift from the Cold War environment dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union sees the future in less ambiguous terms, and theorizes that civilizational consciousness, will increase, resulting in a greater amount of conflict between civilizations more so than nation-states because of differences in basic political and moral values.
Huntington did note in his article that he was aware of differences of opinion and outlook within ‘civilizations’ but he appeared to think this was much less important than an apparently clear ‘clash’ of values norms, and beliefs which for him characterized the division ‘between’ the ‘West’ and ‘Islam’.
Since the clash of civilizations is a fact of the global environment and the basic political and moral values are falling to aggravate the situation, it is very important that the global community is provided with an alternative that becomes acceptable gradually. Sikhism has this ray of hope due to its qualitative and universal structure.
The major reasons for this clash of civilizations thus emerge as the cultural, ethical, moral, and political degradation and a sense of ignorance about the real human values. Misunderstanding and mistrust between communities in general have created intolerance and deep hatred, leading to wide-scale global terrorism and the conflict of civilizations. The need is to build bridges, create a wave of understanding and trust, develop tolerance, and inculcate political, cultural, ethical, and moral values. Where does the solution lie?
Arnold Toynbee said in 1960, "Mankind's religious future may be obscure; yet one thing can be foreseen. The living higher religions are going to influence each other more than even before in the days of increasing communication between all parts of the world and all branches of the human race. In this coming religious debate, the Sikh religion and its scripture, the Aad Granth, will have something of special value to the rest world.” [8] In light of the observation made by Toynbee, let us see the role of Sikhs in the clash of civilizations.
SIKHS IN CLASH OF CIVILISATIONS
Sikh identity
Dr Harnam Singh Shan describes Sikhs having their own spiritual and political capital (Ahl-al-Maqan) as Golden Temple (Harimandar) and the seat of God (Akal Takhat) at Amritsar; own Holy Scripture (Ahal-al-Kitab) Sri Guru Granth Sahib; having religion truly revealed to their head Guru Nanak (Ahl-al-Milla) with global fellowship of faith and cohesive community called sangat and panth; having firm faith in the doctrine of the holy word (shabad) (Ahl-i-Kalaam) and shabd-guru ;own language (Ahl-i-zaban) Punajbi and script Gurmukhi; own distinct flag/banner (Ahl-al-Nishan) Kesri Nishan Sahib with the Khalsa emblem (khanda), line of martyrs (Ahl-al-shahad), symbols of sovereign identity Ahl-al-shamshir (5 Ks including sword) and own usages, customs and a distinctive code of conduct (reht maryada) (Ahl-al-Sunnah). This all confirms the distinctive identity of Sikhs.
Huntington has not done justice to the position of Sikhs while defining various civilizations and has not given them an independent identity. He has confused the culture of Sikhs as a mixture of Hindu and Muslim cultures and identified them as Muslims. The Hindu and Islamic civilizations appear to be wholly defined by religion. This is not a factual justification. Since Huntington’s civilizations are primarily based on religions, it is important to identify Sikhs independently. Jonathan Fox has rightly identified them as such: “Since Huntington seems to be ambivalent about the African civilization and defines the Islamic civilization wholly on the basis of religion, these and all other Moslem groups are considered part of the Islamic civilization. The Druze, Baha'i, and Sikhs are groups that do not fit well into any of Huntington’s categories. Since the Druze and Baha’i religions are considered Islamic offshoots and the Sikh religion combines elements of the Islamic and Hindu faiths, ethnic groups of these three religions are considered here part of the Islamic civilization”. [9] In reality, things differ. Sikhs have a different identity of their own, different from Hindus and Muslims, though they are in minority.
Being a distinct religion and having a different way of life, Sikhism marked a deep rupture with the religious traditions of South Asia. As religion had permeated virtually all aspects of life into his part of the world till recent years, the introduction of the Sikh religion changed the very tenor and pulse of life in the subcontinent. No wonder the participation of the Sikhs in the socio-political and cultural life of the area has been eminently distinct in various ways. [10] It is different from Hinduism and Islam, as Guru Nanak himself declared his identity different from these two religions. Similarly, the ban put by various governments on Sikh identity symbols is also being fought vigorously. The ban on turban in France is one such well-propagated problem that the Sikhs have raised globally and got support from UN agencies.
Dorothy Field observed in 1914, "Sikhism is capable of a distinct position as a world religion, so long as the Sikhs maintain their distinctiveness. The religion is also one that should appeal to the occidental mind. It is essentially a practical religion. If judged pragmatically, … it would rank almost first in the world. Of no other religion can it be said that it has made a nation in so short a time. The religion of the Sikhs is one of the most interesting in India, possibly indeed in the whole world. That it should have transformed the outcaste Indian… into a fine and loyal warrior is little short of miracle.” [11]
Sikh Characteristics
Sikhism is the most modern, wholly original, and practical in solving problems and caring for and ameliorating the whole humanity. It helps uplift humanity in thought, conduct, outlook, organization, and cultural patterns, etc. It has a new vision of the Universal Man, the altruistic ideal of a democratic state, and a new pattern of a casteless and classless society. Bradshaw declared it as “Faith of the New Age." It urges self-realization and recognition of the Universal Creator through His creation, with whom he approaches to bind a direct communication and connection; for Him all are equal, and service towards His creation is the true service to Him. Sikhism gives optimistic hope of salvation for everyone by Divine Grace and adopts service to humanity as fundamental. A Sikh’s normal life is that of ‘Kirt karna, Nam Japna, Vand Chhakna’ (dedicated labor, remembering God, and sharing one’s earnings with others) as a householder. He believes in virtuous conduct and nature adoration. He is against exploitation of man by man; he neither fears nor frightens anyone, remains stable and steadfast in all eventualities, embodies the universal spirit of liberation and tolerance, and seeks Sarbat da bhala (welfare of the entire humanity) in all his prayers. His cosmopolitan outlook, liberal essence and glorious traditions have contributed significantly towards human uplift and well-being by offering the message of ‘Chardi Kala” (high spirits) for all mankind and by furthering goodwill, general happiness and collective moral values of society, both at home and abroad, for building a new and peaceful pluralistic world order.”[12]
Sikhs are primarily peace-loving and non-interfering people in such unwanted wars. They prefer to help the needy and to take offensive defence to avoid such conflict affecting them directly. However, due to the close facial identity of Sikhs and Muslims, the Sikhs have been often attacked by Americans and Europeans to avenge Muslims. This is more so in the US than in other countries. This sudden spurt of mistaken violence against Sikhs has broken their slumber, and they have started thinking about the new problem. The wise ones convert threat into opportunity. It is the time for them to covert this threat into opportunity. US Sikhs have shown an example of it. The attack on the Sikh Temple in US has not dampened their spirit. They, in turn, showed solidarity and held processions to show to the world that they cannot be cowed down by such an attack. This also helped them to come closer, and they are getting well-knit and ready to help those in need without caring for caste, creed, or community. As a result, the sound of the bullets sounded not only in the White House but also in the Senate. General sympathy of the public too grew towards them as people from other communities too shared their grief. A wave has started to put a ban on the uncontrolled sale of weapons. Sikhs have come into the limelight, and this has helped establish their separate identity from Muslims, which otherwise was not possible. The virtues of the Sikh religion are also getting propagated in the process. Honoring the savior cop and helping him financially has created a favorable feeling among other citizens too. Such like racial attacks thus did not dampen their spirits but in turn bolstered their morale. In turn, their image in local societies has further improved. It is not ending at it alone. A wave of distributing literature among the masses about Sikhs and Sikhism has also started. Wards of the Sikh community living outside are also being taught the fundamentals of Sikhism on a larger scale, and we hear of camps being held for Sikh youth for such training. A general global awareness about the Sikhs has been started not only among Sikhs themselves but also among the general public as well.
McAuliffe while addressing the Quest Society in 1910 in London stated: “The Sikh religion (as compared to other religions) presents no mysteries, and embraces an ethical system such as has never been excelled, if needed it has ever been equaled. It offers fewer points of attack than any other theological systems, and if patronized and cherished, as its religious and political importance deserves, by a powerful government, it might become one of the first religions on this planet.” [13]
Sikhism is thus a complete and perfect religion, not only because of its having such prominent features, elements, and essentials of a 'higher religion,' but also because it was established, as its founder stated, to carry out a specific command of the Lord. It is dynamic, stable, and eternal and gets firmer and firmer with time. This revealed, distinct, and complete religion of such self-sacrificing saint soldiers is a universal world faith with all-embracing appeal and an elevating message for all mankind.” [14]
“It is the faith of New Age,” says Rev. Bradshaw, “it is the summum bonum" [15] for the modern man. It thus meets all the requirements of an established religion. The Sikh religion is the universal religion for the present space age. The Sikh religion is truly the answer to the problems of the modern man.[16] “it is the only living faith,” according to Bettencourt, "that gives the healing outlook of life.” [17]
This is proving true since over 50,000 westerners have adopted Sikhism. Followers of Sikhism now include all religions, castes, creeds, and nations, and it has become truly global in nature and spirit.
Sikhs' role in the Clash of Civilizations:
Sikhism is required to take the world out of fundamentalism and narrow parochialism, causing clashes in civilizations, and has to propagate and inculcate peace and prosperity through the fundamentals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. For this, they need to be the beacons in the darkness of ignorance and oppression and provide a path for global peace and prosperity. As beacons or role models, they have to be well above others in the need of qualities to build bridges, create a wave of understanding and trust, develop tolerance, and inculcate political, cultural, ethical, and moral values. They should be the embodiment of knowledge and source of spiritual enlightenment. Persons like late Yogi Harbhajan Singh can perform such tasks adequately. From this stage they will be able to bring the leaders of conflicting civilizations under their impression and convince them to shun conflicts and live peacefully. Interreligious conventions are the right forums for such impacts. Presently, Sikhs do not adequately represent Sikhism at the global level. For this purpose, there is a need for a team of global presenters well-versed in the Sikh values system. Sikhs themselves too must start a wave of refinement within themselves based on the Sikh value system so that every Sikh becomes a symbol of purity and piety. This will automatically attract others to follow Sikhism and to increase the quantitative strength once the faith of Sikhism is globally accepted. It must be remembered that Sikhs have never used force to convert anyone, but through their value system they have attracted others into the Sikh fold. Aad Granth, the religious scripture of the Sikhs, has this charisma in it. The teachings of Aad Granth are the guiding lights for all ages to come. After going through Dr Gopal Singh’s translation of Aad Granth Pearl S Buck remarked: “I have studied the scripture of other great religions, but I do not find elsewhere the same power of appeal to the heart and mind as I find here in these volumes. They are compact in spite of their length and are a revelation of the vast reach of the human heart, varying from the most noble concept of God to the recognition and indeed the insistence upon practical needs of the human body. There is nothing strangely modern about these scriptures, and this puzzled me until I learned that they are in fact comparatively modern.
The strength of Sikh institutions is a great winning factor. Institutions like free kitchen (langar) system, free water service (Chhabeel), free education, free accommodation in Sikh temples (gurdwaras), and free aid societies like Bhai Ghanya Trust and House for the destitute (Pingalwada) are a great source of attachment and attraction of general masses towards them. Sikhs have been providing these services globally and in the calamity-affected areas, like in the earthquake in Gujarat, flood devastation in Uttaranchal Pradesh, and drought-affected areas on the African continent, which leave an impeccable impression about Sikh values.
Sikh should also provide more free literature globally. It must update its own history books and translate the scriptures in all the major languages of the world and arrange for free literature distribution. S. Sarup Singh Alagh’s Shabd Yag can be emulated in this regard. More Sikhs must come forward to provide such services globally.
SIKHISM AS A RELIGION FOR THE THIRD MILLENNIUM
Sikhism is now one of the five major world religions, having the unique distinction of being the only major religion that arose in the second millennium. Though a religion of the second millennium, it is a religion for the third millennium, as it is the one caring for all; for believers as well as non-believers. It sees everyone with the same eye and makes no distinctions. It does not bind anyone to Sikhism to get its benefits; its prayer halls are open for all; its prayer ends with praying for well being of all the universe; its community kitchen is for all; all are invited to sit together and eat; it helps all the men in need; may be caught in floods, earthquakes, draught or by any natural or man-made calamity around the globe; it goes to the aid of all. It speaks the language of love. It loves all equally, taking all being the creation of the Universal God. The common fraternity of the entire universe and brotherhood is ingrained into all Sikh minds; no distinctions of caste and creed, rich and poor, or male and female are accepted principally. Thinking all are equal, they are for equal justice to all and stand against any injustice done to any individual. In the words of Arnold Toynbee, it has the potential of ushering in a new higher civilization qualitatively different from the earlier Indic and Hindu civilizations. The potential of the Sikh religion, its élan vital, can play a dominant role in shaping the 21st-century society and the third-millennium civilization that would be in its fundamental postulates different from the modern Western civilization. Islam and Christianity also, in their prime times, had brought about their respective civilizations, but these were un-centric, religious, socially, and politically. Islam used force to spread force to spread, and Christians lured the innocent through material benefits; Sikhs, however, used love and service to the people to wind over their hearts. Sikhism is thus truly developed on the principles of love, faith in God, liberty, equality, and fraternity.
As religion is the realm of the revelations of the Spirit from time to time, mankind is looking upon religion in a new way: as a quest for the Spirit of religion, flowing in different faiths, as distinct from dogma hardened in different religiosities. In the process of ushering in a new holistic world view for the postmodern global society of the 21st century, Sikhism can play a vital role on both metaphysical and sociological levels. Sikhism is essentially a religion of spirit with a holistic vision on the epistemic level. [18]
Apart from being a distinct monotheistic faith, Sikhism is also a social and fraternal religion, standing equally for the common Fatherhood of God and Universal Brotherhood of Man, guaranteeing equal status to all human beings and asserting that normal family life, loved with virtuouis conduct and firm faith in God, surely leads to the path of salvation. It is thus a religion of our time, modern in outlook, scientific in analysis, rational in approach, and practical in adaptability; suited to the needs, aspirations, and conditions of the modern man and his social setup. it is a religion that is concerned with the creation of a just social order and is committed to social equality and peaceful coexistence. It enjoins on its followers social responsibility involving both service and social action. It is based on humanistic and universal values of the purest form. Human freedom and dignity, self-realization and self-confidence, and service and sacrifice have been the essential elements of the ethos. [19]
Sikhism has used love, service, faith, and truth as the pillars of strength and total dedication and commitment to faith. Sikhism has maintained this for the last 500 years and has not used force and domination to propagate itself. The Gurus, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur and Maharaja Ranjit Singh, maintained these principles even when they were in power, and not a single individual has been converted to Sikhism by force, greed, or trickery. Only love and faith have attracted all the Sikhs to its domain. It used force against the oppressors and offenders to protect the masses. The famous anecdote of attacking Mughals at midnight is actually related to the time (midnight) when they used to attack the Mughals to release the Indian females forcibly being taken by them to Afghanistan to be sold. After their release, these girls were honorably sent to their homes under protection. Sikhs are thus known for offensive defence and never for using force for amassing wealth or to win over territories. For them, all individuals are the creation of God; hence, all are brothers and sisters and equal in status and wish the entire globe to live in peace and liberty. Sikhs thus suit the requirements of the future, especially the third millennium.
Sikhs are primarily peace-loving and non-interfering people in such unwanted wars. They prefer to help the needy and to take offensive defence to avoid such conflict affecting them directly. However, due to the close facial identity of Sikhs and Muslims, the Sikhs have been often attacked by Americans and Europeans to avenge Muslims. This is more so in the US than in other countries. This sudden spurt of mistaken violence against Sikhs has broken their slumber, and they have started thinking about the new problem. The wise ones convert threat into opportunity. It is the time for them to covert this threat into opportunity. US Sikhs have shown an example of it. The attack on the Sikh Temple in US has not dampened their spirit. They, in turn, showed solidarity and held processions to show to the world that they cannot be cowed down by such an attack. This also helped them to come closer, and they are getting well-knit and ready to help those in need without caring for caste, creed, or community. As a result, the sound of the bullets sounded not only in the White House but also in the Senate. General sympathy of the public too grew towards them as people from other communities too shared their grief. A wave has started to put a ban on the uncontrolled sale of weapons. Sikhs have come into the limelight, and this has helped establish their separate identity from Muslims, which otherwise was not possible. The virtues of the Sikh religion are also getting propagated in the process. Honoring the savior cop and helping him financially has created a favorable feeling among other citizens too. Such like racial attacks thus did not dampen their spirits but in turn bolstered their morale. In turn, their image in local societies has further improved. It is not ending at it alone. A wave of distributing literature among the masses about Sikhs and Sikhism has also started. Wards of the Sikh community living outside are also being taught the fundamentals of Sikhism on a larger scale, and we hear of camps being held for Sikh youth for such training. A general global awareness about the Sikhs has been started not only among Sikhs themselves but also among the general public as well.
McAuliffe while addressing the Quest Society in 1910 in London stated: “The Sikh religion (as compared to other religions) presents no mysteries, and embraces an ethical system such as has never been excelled, if needed it has ever been equaled. It offers fewer points of attack than any other theological systems, and if patronized and cherished, as its religious and political importance deserves, by a powerful government, it might become one of the first religions on this planet.” [13]
Sikhism is thus a complete and perfect religion, not only because of its having such prominent features, elements, and essentials of a 'higher religion,' but also because it was established, as its founder stated, to carry out a specific command of the Lord. It is dynamic, stable, and eternal and gets firmer and firmer with time. This revealed, distinct, and complete religion of such self-sacrificing saint soldiers is a universal world faith with all-embracing appeal and an elevating message for all mankind.” [14]
“It is the faith of New Age,” says Rev. Bradshaw, “it is the summum bonum" [15] for the modern man. It thus meets all the requirements of an established religion. The Sikh religion is the universal religion for the present space age. The Sikh religion is truly the answer to the problems of the modern man.[16] “it is the only living faith,” according to Bettencourt, "that gives the healing outlook of life.” [17]
This is proving true since over 50,000 westerners have adopted Sikhism. Followers of Sikhism now include all religions, castes, creeds, and nations, and it has become truly global in nature and spirit.
Sikhs' role in the Clash of Civilizations:
Sikhism is required to take the world out of fundamentalism and narrow parochialism, causing clashes in civilizations, and has to propagate and inculcate peace and prosperity through the fundamentals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. For this, they need to be the beacons in the darkness of ignorance and oppression and provide a path for global peace and prosperity. As beacons or role models, they have to be well above others in the need of qualities to build bridges, create a wave of understanding and trust, develop tolerance, and inculcate political, cultural, ethical, and moral values. They should be the embodiment of knowledge and source of spiritual enlightenment. Persons like late Yogi Harbhajan Singh can perform such tasks adequately. From this stage they will be able to bring the leaders of conflicting civilizations under their impression and convince them to shun conflicts and live peacefully. Interreligious conventions are the right forums for such impacts. Presently, Sikhs do not adequately represent Sikhism at the global level. For this purpose, there is a need for a team of global presenters well-versed in the Sikh values system. Sikhs themselves too must start a wave of refinement within themselves based on the Sikh value system so that every Sikh becomes a symbol of purity and piety. This will automatically attract others to follow Sikhism and to increase the quantitative strength once the faith of Sikhism is globally accepted. It must be remembered that Sikhs have never used force to convert anyone, but through their value system they have attracted others into the Sikh fold. Aad Granth, the religious scripture of the Sikhs, has this charisma in it. The teachings of Aad Granth are the guiding lights for all ages to come. After going through Dr Gopal Singh’s translation of Aad Granth Pearl S Buck remarked: “I have studied the scripture of other great religions, but I do not find elsewhere the same power of appeal to the heart and mind as I find here in these volumes. They are compact in spite of their length and are a revelation of the vast reach of the human heart, varying from the most noble concept of God to the recognition and indeed the insistence upon practical needs of the human body. There is nothing strangely modern about these scriptures, and this puzzled me until I learned that they are in fact comparatively modern.
The strength of Sikh institutions is a great winning factor. Institutions like free kitchen (langar) system, free water service (Chhabeel), free education, free accommodation in Sikh temples (gurdwaras), and free aid societies like Bhai Ghanya Trust and House for the destitute (Pingalwada) are a great source of attachment and attraction of general masses towards them. Sikhs have been providing these services globally and in the calamity-affected areas, like in the earthquake in Gujarat, flood devastation in Uttaranchal Pradesh, and drought-affected areas on the African continent, which leave an impeccable impression about Sikh values.
Sikh should also provide more free literature globally. It must update its own history books and translate the scriptures in all the major languages of the world and arrange for free literature distribution. S. Sarup Singh Alagh’s Shabd Yag can be emulated in this regard. More Sikhs must come forward to provide such services globally.
SIKHISM AS A RELIGION FOR THE THIRD MILLENNIUM
Sikhism is now one of the five major world religions, having the unique distinction of being the only major religion that arose in the second millennium. Though a religion of the second millennium, it is a religion for the third millennium, as it is the one caring for all; for believers as well as non-believers. It sees everyone with the same eye and makes no distinctions. It does not bind anyone to Sikhism to get its benefits; its prayer halls are open for all; its prayer ends with praying for well being of all the universe; its community kitchen is for all; all are invited to sit together and eat; it helps all the men in need; may be caught in floods, earthquakes, draught or by any natural or man-made calamity around the globe; it goes to the aid of all. It speaks the language of love. It loves all equally, taking all being the creation of the Universal God. The common fraternity of the entire universe and brotherhood is ingrained into all Sikh minds; no distinctions of caste and creed, rich and poor, or male and female are accepted principally. Thinking all are equal, they are for equal justice to all and stand against any injustice done to any individual. In the words of Arnold Toynbee, it has the potential of ushering in a new higher civilization qualitatively different from the earlier Indic and Hindu civilizations. The potential of the Sikh religion, its élan vital, can play a dominant role in shaping the 21st-century society and the third-millennium civilization that would be in its fundamental postulates different from the modern Western civilization. Islam and Christianity also, in their prime times, had brought about their respective civilizations, but these were un-centric, religious, socially, and politically. Islam used force to spread force to spread, and Christians lured the innocent through material benefits; Sikhs, however, used love and service to the people to wind over their hearts. Sikhism is thus truly developed on the principles of love, faith in God, liberty, equality, and fraternity.
As religion is the realm of the revelations of the Spirit from time to time, mankind is looking upon religion in a new way: as a quest for the Spirit of religion, flowing in different faiths, as distinct from dogma hardened in different religiosities. In the process of ushering in a new holistic world view for the postmodern global society of the 21st century, Sikhism can play a vital role on both metaphysical and sociological levels. Sikhism is essentially a religion of spirit with a holistic vision on the epistemic level. [18]
Apart from being a distinct monotheistic faith, Sikhism is also a social and fraternal religion, standing equally for the common Fatherhood of God and Universal Brotherhood of Man, guaranteeing equal status to all human beings and asserting that normal family life, loved with virtuouis conduct and firm faith in God, surely leads to the path of salvation. It is thus a religion of our time, modern in outlook, scientific in analysis, rational in approach, and practical in adaptability; suited to the needs, aspirations, and conditions of the modern man and his social setup. it is a religion that is concerned with the creation of a just social order and is committed to social equality and peaceful coexistence. It enjoins on its followers social responsibility involving both service and social action. It is based on humanistic and universal values of the purest form. Human freedom and dignity, self-realization and self-confidence, and service and sacrifice have been the essential elements of the ethos. [19]
Sikhism has used love, service, faith, and truth as the pillars of strength and total dedication and commitment to faith. Sikhism has maintained this for the last 500 years and has not used force and domination to propagate itself. The Gurus, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur and Maharaja Ranjit Singh, maintained these principles even when they were in power, and not a single individual has been converted to Sikhism by force, greed, or trickery. Only love and faith have attracted all the Sikhs to its domain. It used force against the oppressors and offenders to protect the masses. The famous anecdote of attacking Mughals at midnight is actually related to the time (midnight) when they used to attack the Mughals to release the Indian females forcibly being taken by them to Afghanistan to be sold. After their release, these girls were honorably sent to their homes under protection. Sikhs are thus known for offensive defence and never for using force for amassing wealth or to win over territories. For them, all individuals are the creation of God; hence, all are brothers and sisters and equal in status and wish the entire globe to live in peace and liberty. Sikhs thus suit the requirements of the future, especially the third millennium.
[1]. E. R. Curtis, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, 1953
[2] Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History (abridged edition 1947) 1:578, Arnold Toynbee, The World and the West, Oxford University Press, 1953.
[3] William H. McNeill, Arnold J. Toynbee, A Life (1989), p. 224.
[4] Samuel P. Huntington, 1993, “The Clash of Civilizations,” Foreign Affairs, Summer, 22-49. "Five Years After 9/11, The Clash of Civilizations Revisited," an interview of Huntington by Mark O'Keefe, Associate Director, Editorial, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, August 18, 2006.
"If Not Civilizations, What? Samuel Huntington Responds to His Critics," Foreign Affairs, November/December 1993 (full text)
"The Clash of Civilizations?" Interview with Samuel Huntington, The Guardian, October 21, 2001.
"The Clash of Civilizations Revisited," New Perspectives Quarterly, Winter 2007. An interview of Huntington by Amina R. Chaudary of Islamica Magazine.
"The global clash of emotions," International Herald Tribune, Dominique Moïsi, December 14, 2006.
[5] Clash of Civilizations - Wikipedia
[6] Huntington, 1993, P.22
[7] Madan Lal Goel (Dr.), 2013, A Clash Of Civilizations, University Of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida, Lgoel@Uwf. Edu Website: Lgoel
[8] Toynbee A, UNESCO’s selections from the sacred Writings of Sikhs, Foreward, pp. 10-11.
[9] Jonathan Fox, 2002, Ethnic Minorities and the Clash of Civilizations: A Quantitative Analysis of Huntington’s Thesis, B.J.Pol.S.32, Cambridge University Press, p. 423.
[10] Mehar Singh Gill (Dr.), The Sikhs and the Challenges of the 21st Century, p.1
[11] Field, the religion of the Sikhs, op. cit., p. 9, 34-55
[12] Harnam Singh Shan (Dr.), 1993, paper read at the 34th International Congress and Asian and North African Studies held from 22nd to 28th August at the University of Hong Kong
[13] McAuliffe, M.A., 1910, The Sikh religion: A lecture, London, p.25
[14] Harnam Singh Shan (Dr), 2008, Sikhism: An Original, Distinct, Revealed and Complete Religion, in Sikhism: its Philosophy and History, Institute of Sikh Studies, Chandigarh, Second Edn, pp.210-215
[15] Bradshaw, H.L., Sikhism, in the Sikh Review, Calcutta
[16] op cit.
[17] Bettencourt, The Sikh Way of Life, op. cit., p. vi
[18] Jasbir Singh Ahluwalia, Sikhism: A Religion for the Third Millennium, A Postmodernist Perspective, Issue 26 - November 2006, http://www.sikhspectrum.com/022006/postmodern.htm.
[19] Harnam Singh Shan (Dr.), pp. 216-217
