Guru Nanak and the Influence of Islam: Context, Dialogue, and Transcendence

[indichawla]

Guru Nanak and the Influence of Islam: Context, Dialogue, and Transcendence​

Inderjeet Singh Chawla



Abstract



The essay examines how Islam and Sufi mysticism have contributed in a complex way to the life, theology, and spiritual legacy of Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469-1539), the founder of Sikhism. Positioning the Guru within the context of religious syncretism in fifteenth-century Punjab, the paper will examine how Nanak engaged with the prevailing Islamic culture in the region through radical monotheism, mysticism, and social egalitarianism. The essay provides extensive examples of theological parallels, such as the convergence of Ik Onkar and the Islamic Shahada, the similarity of Naam Simran to Sufi dhikr, and the shared rejection of ritual formalism and the caste system. Although elements of such deep sources are recognised, the paper remains faithful to the Sikh theological stance that Nanak’s revelation was divinely inspired and autonomous, positing that his engagement with Islam was characterised by critical absorption rather than derivative syncretism. Finally, the essay argues that Guru Nanak’s relationship with Islam is a case of profound interreligious dialogue and mutual respect, which demonstrates s how an innovative response to the spiritual processes of the contemporary era may create a unique religious identity.





Introduction





Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539) is one of the most influential and transformative religious figures in South Asian history, whose spiritual teachings are still used by millions of people worldwide today. As the founder of the Sikh tradition, he articulated ground breaking and radical vision of God, humanity, and spiritual liberation that deliberately transcended the strictly divided borders of the two prevalent religious traditions of the time: Hinduism and Islam. Although Guru Nanak is essentially known as the founder of a separate and independent religious path, designated as the “Panth” or way, scholars, theologians, and historians have long engaged with the complex question of how much his thought was shaped by the intellectual and spiritual currents of his time, most particularly those flowing from Islam and its mystical tradition of Sufism.[1]

The essay presents a critical and subtle analysis of how Guru Nanak’s thought, life and spiritual legacy were influenced by Islam. It does not aim at reducing Sikhism to a mere derivative or synthesis of Hinduism and Islam, which Sikh theology has firmly rejected based on its own revelation, but rather to appreciate the rich historical and intellectual background of the emergence of the revelations of Guru Nanak. We aim to explore the ways in which Islamic ideas, practices, and personalities contributed to shaping his message, arguing that while the Guru’s message was unique, it was inextricably linked to the interfaith milieu of medieval Punjab.[2] Understanding these influences is not merely an academic exercise in historicism; it illuminates the remarkable capacity of a single visionary to engage, critically absorb, transform, and transcend the religious traditions of his environment, ultimately producing something entirely new.

The essay follows the order of the historical context of the world of Guru Nanak, the theological parallels of his teaching to Islamic thought, the Sufi influences that had the strongest impact on him, and finally, the assessment of how Nanak himself perceived, understood and negotiated the relationship with Islam. Throughout the am is maintaining fidelity both to the historical evidence and the integrity of the Sikh theological self-understanding, in the recognition that influence does not imply derivation.[3]




















































































In order to understand the Islamic influences on Guru Nanak, we first need to see the volatile and vibrant world into which he was born. That Punjab of the late fifteenth century was a melting pot of religious diversity and cultural hybridity, and served as a bridge between Central Asia and the Indian Subcontinent.[4] Yet it had been under Muslim control for several centuries. Since Mahmud of Ghazni’s incursions into the early eleventh century and under the brief period of expansion following the Delhi Sultanate, which ruled over to early Mughal times, Islam was the region’s dominant religion. [5]By the time of Guru Nanak’s birth in Talwandi (in what is now Pakistan today), Islam was not merely the religion of the rulers and their soldiers; the religion had penetrated deeply into the cultural, intellectual and spiritual fabric of society.

Punjab’s extensive and deeply established Sufi tradition of Islamic mysticism: Sufis had lived in the region for centuries, with dargahs (Sufi shrines) dotted throughout the landscape from Multan to Lahore, attracting pilgrims and devotees alike from all religious backgrounds.[6] One of the most beloved Sufi saints of Punjab and a major figure in the Chishti Inward Order was Baba Farid Ganjshakar(1179–1265). He was a pivotal figure of the Chishti order and had already become integrated into the folk religious culture of the region, crossing communal boundaries with remarkable ease.[7] Baba Farid’s poetry was written in the vernacular language of Punjab, which was Punjabi, rather than Persian or Arabic. It provides a mirror image contrast to love; longing for god, the embrace of pain that comes at separation and also other themes that struck deep and wide across religious divides.

It’s here that Guru Nanak was born in the Hindu Khatri family into this syncretic environment. His father, Mehta Kalu, was an accountant for a local Muslim official (a patwari). From the earliest years, Guru Nanak would have had regular and meaningful contacts with Muslims.[8] His closest childhood companions were Muslims, and later in life, his most intimate companion would be Bhai Mardana, a Muslim of the musician (mirasi) community. [9] This biographical reality is not purely fortuitous; it also speaks to the lived experiences of interfaith coexistence, which was built on Guru Nanak’s character and perspective--giving him an intimate view of Islamic praxis long before ever formally setting his feet outside Punjab’s borders on his udasi’s.

Guru Nanak’s world was also coloured by the broader political context of Mughal expansion. He saw Babur’s expansion of northern India (1524--1526 ), which he described as Babar Vani (Hymns Concerning Babar) preserved in Guru Granth Sahib.[10] These compositions show a man who was deeply engaged in the politics of his time, one who could rebuke Muslim rulers for their wrongdoings and injustice while still acknowledging in other contexts the truth of Islamic monotheism.[11] This complex engagement with Islam, neither uncritically accepted nor completely repudiated, is characteristic of Guru Nanak’s entire approach, setting a precedent for a critical dialogue that would resonate through early Sikh history and community

The Bhakti movement was sweeping all over the Indian subcontinent and shaped the intellectual climate of Punjab in the fifteenth century. Bhakti saints like Kabir, Ravidas and Namdev articulated a path of God which transcended boundary of caste and religion.[12] Starting with Vedantic philosophy and Sufi mysticism, Kabir meshed the two together into a vernacular spirituality that went beyond the orthodoxies of both traditions. Guru Nanak was familiar with this tradition and even practised this tradition a number of the compositions of Kabir that would be later included in the Guru Granth Sahib and Kabir was perhaps the most direct forebear of Guru Nanak’s synthesis and transcendence Guru Nanak would achieve.[13]

Before examining the particular theological parallels and historical links, the methodological questions of what it means for religion to be influenced. The idea that Guru Nanak was "influenced" by Islam requires careful qualification to avoid reductionist pitfalls. Sikhs is not a synthesis between Hinduism and Islam, nor is it a sect of either of the two religions; instead, it claims its own sovereign ontological status. Sikh theological tradition insists on the originality and divine inspiration of Guru Nanak’s revelation, and this claim deserves scholarly respect even in a historical inquiry.[14]At the same time, the existence of striking parallels between Guru Nanak’s teachings and Islamic thought cannot be ignored or dismissed, for to do so would be to ignore the historical reality of 15th-century Punjab.

Guru Nanak lived in a world that was full of Islamic thoughts, practices, customs, and personalities figures that provided him with the rightful scholarly position. His revelations were manifested in this world, interacted with it and had a result, something unprecedented. [15] The influence of Islam, in particular at Sufi expressions, is real and documentable, but not an explanation of the contents of the revelations of Guru Nanak. It can be admitted that one can approach, borrow and react to the traditions surrounding him without diminishing his input into the tradition. In the argument that W.H. McLeod puts forward, Guru Nanak was a man of his time, addressing his era, yet a uniquely individual voice that was his own.[16]

Another issue is that of common ground versus direct influence. Part of the similarity between Guru Nanak’s thought and Islamic thought could be a parallel response to shared human concerns, the nature of God, the essential nature of prayer, and the issue of religious hypocrisy, rather than direct borrowing. In these cases, one can speak of resonance or convergence rather than influence in a strict sense. To help differentiate between these two dynamics, one must carefully read the primary texts, specifically “Guru Granth Sahib,” to discern where Guru Nanak is adopting Islamic terminology and where he is subverting it to suit his own theological framework.[17] These distinctions will be observed throughout the essay.

Finally, it is noteworthy that the evidence of the Islamic-influence on Guru Nanak is found in several sources: biographical traditions (the Janamsakis), the compositions of the Guru Granth Sahib itself, the eyewitness accounts of his companions, and even the historical records of his travels and experiences.[18] The Janamsakhis, for instance, are often hagiographic rather than strictly historical.[19] The essay will draw on them with appropriate critical awareness, using them to illuminate the perception of Islam within the early Sikh community, even when they do not provide verifiable historical data. Radical monotheism perhaps represents the most basic area of intersection of the teaching of Guru Nanak and Islam. The initial words of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Mool Mantar, express a vision of God that resonates powerfully towards the Islamic theology. Nevertheless, it differs from it in significant ways. The Mool Mantar begins with: Ik Onkar, one god. This statement of absolute divine unity resembles the Islamic Shahada: La ilaha il Allah, There is no God but God. [20] Both declarations are not just theological statements, as they have foundational commitments that carry ethical and spiritual implications. In Islam, tawhid (the oneness of God) is the central doctrine, from which all others flow, shaping Islamic theology, law, ethics and spirituality.[21] For Sikhism, Ik Onkar performs an analogous function; it is the axle around which all of Guru Nanak’s teachings revolve. As discussed later in the section on Hukam, this oneness implies a cosmic order to which human beings must submit. The Mool Mantar further describes God as Satnam (True Name), Kartapurkh (Creator Being), Nirbhau (Without Fear), Nirvair (Without Enmity), Akal Murat (Undying Form), Ajoni (Unborn), Saibhang (Self-Existent). Several of these attributes find direct parallels in the Islamic understanding of God as expressed through the ninety-nine names of Allah. The Quranic descriptions of God as Al-Haqq (The Truth), Al-Khaliq (The Creator), Al-Qayyum (The Self-Subsisting), and Al-Baqi (The Everlasting) align closely with the attributes Guru Nanak assigns to the one God.[22] This semantic overlap suggests that Guru Nanak was utilising a theological vocabulary that would be immediately intelligible to a Muslim audience, while simultaneously infusing it with his own specific nuance.

Beyond the enumeration of parallel features, Guru Nanak’s theology shares with Islam a profound insistence on absolute transcendence and God’s unity. Both traditions reject polytheism, idol worship, or the attribution of partners to God with fervent vehemence. Although Guru Nanak’s criticism of Hindu idol worship, while rooted in the Bhakti tradition, is sharpened by his insistence on the unity of God, which resonates unmistakably with Islamic sensibility. He wrote in the Guru Granth Sahib: “The idol of stone they call God; the devotees are lost in the stone (GGS, 1349),” a critique that could have been voiced by any Islamic scholar or Sufi teacher of his era. This rejection of anthropomorphism serves as a bridge connecting his thought to the strict iconoclasm of the Semitic traditions.[23] Nevertheless, it is imperative to note at which monotheism of Guru Nanak diverges from the Islamic version. While Islam insists on the absolute otherness of God (tanzih), Guru Nanak’s God is both transcendent (nirguna, without attributes) and immanent (saguna, with attributes), pervading all of creation.[24] This panentheistic dimension, the idea that God is both beyond the world and present within it, reflects a different metaphysical framework than orthodox Islamic theology, though it has resonances with certain strands of Sufi thought, as will be discussed below.[25] The key distinction is that in Islam, God and creation are ontologically distinct; in Guru Nanak’s teaching, the divine pervades and sustains creation in a more intimate sense.[26]

If orthodox Islamic theology provided one channel of engagement for Guru Nanak, Sufism provided a much more direct and personal one. Sufism, the mystical tradition within Islam, had deeply rooted in the Punjab. It had a deep, many-layered impact on Guru Nanak’s spiritual vision.[27] Sufism as a tradition emphasises the direct, experiential knowledge of God (ma’rifa) over mere formal religious observance.[28] Sufi teachers across the centuries had developed sophisticated accounts of the spiritual journey toward God, stressing the importance of love (ishq), devotion (muhabbat), the purification of the heart (ta`zkiyat al-nafs), and the remembrance of God (dhikr).[29] These emphases found strong parallels in Guru Nanak’s teaching, and in several cases appear to have directly informed it. The similarity in vocabulary and sentiment between Persian Sufi poets and Guru Nanak’s Punjabi verses is too striking to be coincidental.[30]

The most historically significant Sufi influence on Guru Nanak is that of Baba Farid Ganjshakar, a thirteenth-century Punjabi Sufi saint. By the time of Guru Nanak, the compositions of Baba Farid, which were not in Persian or Arabic but in Punjabi, were already celebrated throughout Punjab. Their themes of longing for craving God, anguish in separation from the Beloved, and the necessity of the genuine inner devotion resonated with the spiritual sensibilities of Nanak.[31] The successors of Guru Nanak chose to include poetry by Baba Farid in the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Holy Scripture, which is perhaps the single tangible testimony of the depth of this spiritual intimacy.[32] The shabads (hymns) by Baba Farid in the Guru Granth Sahib stand next to the works of the Sikh Gurus and are accorded all the veneration and esteem they deserve, a wonderful tribute to the conception of a sub-religious spirituality transcending all religious boundaries that was envisioned by Guru Nanak.[33]

The Sufi concept of dhikr, the repeated remembrance or invocation of the name of God, has a very close parallel in Guru Nanak’s teaching of Naam Simran, which is the central spiritual discipline that is predicated upon the remembrance and recitation of the divine name. For both Guru Nanak and the Sufi masters, it is not the mechanical aspect of repeating the divine name that is important, but the transformative aspect where the mind and heart are progressively cleansed, and the practitioner becomes in line with the will of the divine.[34] The structural and conceptual parallels between these practices are sufficiently striking for scholars to have debated the question of direct derivation.[35] While the terms of a debate on influence versus independent development continue to be complex, it is clear that Guru Nanak and the Sufi tradition tapped into similar spiritual intuitions through structurally similar means.

The Sufi concept of fana- the annihilation or dissolution of ego in the divine- also has an affinity in Guru Nanak’s teaching about haumai (ego or self-centeredness).[36] For Guru Nanak, haumai is the basic fundamental spiritual problem, a state of separation from God that is caused by self- centeredness and pride. The spiritual path is basically the progressive melting down of haumai to a stage of total absorption in the will of God.[37] This is very close in structure to the Sufi path of fana, although Guru Nanak’s formulation is more radical in some respects: he stresses that this is done not by elaborate ascetic exercises and esoteric disciplines, but by divine grace (nadar) made accessible through devotion to the Naam (Name) of God. See the section below on The Concept of Hukam, for a deeper exploration of this submission.

Guru Nanak’s language of the longing of the soul for God, which he calls viraha (the pain of separation), is also deeply familiar to the Sufi poetic tradition. Sufi poetry, spanning Rumi to Hafiz to the local vernacular poets of Punjab, is imbued with the imagery of the lover’s longing for the Beloved, his pain of separation, and his ecstasy of union. Guru Nanak uses similar imagery, describing the soul as a bride waiting for the divine Husband with whom she longs to unite.[38]Again, this imagery has echoes in the Hindu tradition of devotion to the divine (especially in the tradition of the soul as a bride of Krishna), but the intensity and particular nature of Guru Nanak’s imagery bears all the earmarks of Sufi influence. The Sufi emphasis on the living spiritual master (pir or murshid) as a necessary guide on the mystical path finds some parallel in Guru Nanak’s teaching on the Guru.[39] While this concept of the guru is deeply rooted in Hindu tradition, Guru Nanak’s understanding of the Guru’s role, as the one who removes darkness and leads the disciple to the light of divine knowledge, has some similarities to the Sufi understanding of the pir.[40] Guru Nanak himself serves as a spiritual master in a way that shares some structural similarity to the Sufi model, gathering disciples (Sikhs) around him and initiating them.

It is, perhaps, the biographical element of the Islamic influence on Guru Nanak mot poignantly represented by his relationship with Bhai Mardana (1459-1534), his lifelong Muslim companion and musician. Mardana was a mirasi, a member of the Muslim community of hereditary musicians in Punjab.[41] Together with the Guru, they travelled to every corner of the subcontinent and beyond, the Guru singing and the Mardana playing the rabab (a stringed instrument). Guru Nanak and Mardana formed an extraordinary relationship that went beyond a simple professional affiliation of a saint with his accompanist, and developed into an intense personal and spiritual relationship that lasted decades and across the continents.[42] Mardana accompanied Guru Nanak on his udasis (spiritual journeys) that took them to the four corners of the known world, east to Assam, west to Mecca and Medina, north to Tibet, and south to Sri Lanka. Mardana stayed a Muslim throughout his life, refusing to become a Sikh, and this is significant, as Guru Nanak never asked Mardana to renounce his Islamic faith, nor did he question his religious identity, saying he would accept and value him for who he was. The very presence of Mardana at Guru Nanak’s side during the composing and rendering of his hymns indicates that Islam in a tangible sense was central to the genesis of Sikh devotional music.60 The rabab itself is an instrument associated with Islamic musical tradition in 17th century Punjab, and the contextual practice through which the compositions of Guru Nanak were first performed and transmitted was very much a shared Hindu-Muslim devotional scenario. This cross-cultural musical synthesis laid the foundation for Kirtan, the central Sikh practice of the singing of hymns, which still owes its indebtedness to the collaborative dynamics Beyond the intimate collaboration with Mardana, the Janamsakhis, biographical narratives of Guru Nanak’s life, record a plethora of encounters between the Guru and Muslim figures, including scholars, Sufi saints, ordinary believers and rulers. These encounters are always represented as opportunities for dialogue, spiritual exchange and recognition of one another. The Janamsakhi versions of Guru Nanak’s encounters with Sufi pirs are especially consequential ones, portraying Guru Nanak as a spiritual peer who is capable of engaging with the deepest layers of Sufi thought and practice. These narratives may or may not be historically verifiable in the strict sense of the word, but this tradition of narrative presents Guru Nanak as a figure with a deep immersion in dialogue with Islam.

The account of Guru Nanak’s meeting with Sheikh Ibrahim Farid, successor of Baba Farid Ganjshakar, is of particular note. As described in the tradition, when Guru Nanak visited the dargah of Baba Farid at Pakpattan, he entered into a deep exchange with the Sheikh on the question of spiritual truth and the interaction is recorded as one of mutual recognition and respect. Whatever may be the exact historical form of this story, it is the tradition’s understanding of a genuine spiritual connection between Guru Nanak and the Chishti Sufis.

One of the most dramatic expressions of Guru Nanak’s engagement with Islam was his journey westward to Arabia and the world beyond - a journey that led him to Mecca, Medina and Baghdad, the most sacred cities of the Islamic world.[43] This journey, which is recorded in the Janamsakhi tradition, is known as the Udasi to the West and forms one of the most extraordinary episodes in the Guru’s life. The Janamsakhi accounts of Guru Nanak’s Mecca visit are rich in symbolic significance.[70] The best-known story relates that Guru Nanak visited Mecca, and while there, he fell asleep with his feet in the direction of the Kaaba, the holiest sacred structure in Islam and the direction in which all Muslims face during prayer (Qibla).[44] When a local qazi (Islamic judge) awoke him and reprimanded him for such a lack of respect, Guru Nanak is said to have responded: “Turn my feet in whatever direction God is not.” According to the narrative, when the qazi moved Guru Nanak’s feet, the Kaaba moved along with them, appearing in every direction. This narrative, whether historical or legendary, captures a key theme of Guru Nanak’s teaching: that God is omnipresent and cannot be restricted to one direction, place, or religion.[45] This tale also reflects upon the respectful but critical way Guru Nanak engaged with Islamic spiritual practice. He did not reject the significance of Mecca; his having travelled there in the first place is in itself a profound statement of respect and engagement. But he challenged the tendency of formal religious practice to confuse the external symbol with the living reality it represents. This is perfectly in accordance with his approach to Hindu religious practice as well; he was an equal-opportunity critic of empty formalism in both traditions.

In Baghdad, as per the Janamsakhi tradition, Guru Nanak met a group of Sufi scholars and engaged in prolonged discussions with them on the issues of spiritual truth.[46] There is evidence of a concrete historical basis for this story of Guru Nanak’s visit to Baghdad: there is a memorial tablet at a site in Baghdad which has an inscription that some scholars have taken to be a commemoration of the presence of Guru Nanak in Baghdad, although the authenticity of the tablet and the meaning of the inscription are the subjects of scholarly debate.[47] Whether or not all the details of the Baghdad narrative are historically verifiable, it is a reflection of the conviction that Guru Nanak engaged directly and substantively with the intellectual and spiritual heart of the Islamic world. These journeys to Islamic lands were not just diplomatic or educative exercises; they were manifestations of the basic assumption of Guru Nanak that truth is not the exclusive property of any particular religious tradition and that the real seekers of truth can and should engage with the deepest expressions of religions other than their own. By visiting Mecca and Medina, Guru Nanak expressed his respect for Islam as a true path to God, while retaining his own unique spiritual vision. This relation of respectful engagement with independent judgement is perhaps the most characteristic feature of his relation with Islam.

One of the most remarkable areas of convergence between the teachings of Guru Nanak and Islamic values is their mutual emphasis on egalitarianism and the rejection of caste-based distinctions.[48] While the basis of Guru Nanak’s critique of caste was his general critique of haumai (ego), and the social structures that reinforce it, the Islamic tradition of human equality before God offered a powerful conceptual resource for this critique, and one that was visibly present in the society around him.[49] Islam’s doctrinal insistence on the equality of all believers - absence of priesthood, no hereditary spiritual authority, no caste - stood in stark contrast to the hierarchical Hindu social order of that time.[50] The coordination of prayer by Muslims across socio-economic strata, ranging from the highest ashraf (noble) families to the lowest artisan communities, who came together shoulder-to-shoulder in the same mosques and prayed the same prayers, represented a daily lived witness to a form of egalitarianism which was unprecedented in the Hindu tradition of Guru Nanak’s time.

Guru Nanak’s repudiation of the caste was radical and uncompromising.[51] He held that divine judgment is based not on the castes or the socio-economic status, but rather on the inner qualities of the heart. His declaration, “the casteless one has made creation; he looks at each one’s deeds,” is reminiscent of the Islamic doctrine that God judges the believer based on deeds and intentions, not birth or social status. The langar - an institution of free communal kitchen that developed as a defining practice of the Sikh community- became a physical representation of this egalitarian principle. In this environment, members of all castes and backgrounds sat and ate together as equals, thus making concrete the espoused values of compositional equality. The practice of communal dining across caste boundaries constituted a practice with no precedent in Brahminical Hinduism, but that was also resonant with the Islamic model of communal prayer as an expression of human equality. Similarly, the rejection of the priestly intermediaries of priests by Guru Nanak, a rejection that emphasised direct access to the divine for each individual without having to go through Brahminic agency, resembles the rejection of the priesthood in Islam, which has no ordained clerical system with unique sacramental functions and allows every Muslim to perform fundamental religious acts directly. While their justifications in theological terms are different, the practical and ethical consequences of the action is still similar, the elimination of a hereditary religious elite with exclusive access to the divine.

Guru Nanak also allied himself with Islam in opposition to elaborate ritual as an inadequate lieu of real spiritual transformation. He was constantly opposing the view that outward religious activity, such as immersion in holy rivers, pilgrimages, compulsory vestments, and prescribed rituals, was an adequate substitute for genuine spiritual reform. This critique mirrors the philosophy of both Sufi thought and the prophetic tradition of Islam, which time and again warned of the perils of outward performance without the accompanying sincere devotion.[52] The prophetic focus upon niyyah (intention), as the main criterion for all religious action, the idea that what counts before God is the sincerity of the heart rather than the outward form, is paralleled by Guru Nanak’s consistent emphasis on inner transformation over outer performance.[53] The structure and nature of the religious practices expounded by Guru Nanak also show some striking similarities with the devotional praxis of Islam. However, these parallels should be thought of as resonances and convergences and not simple derivations.

The institution of the nitnem - the daily prayers prescribed for Sikhs, to be offered at certain times of the day, shows a structural similarity to the Islamic salat (the five daily prayers).[54] Although the content, form, and theological foundation of such practices are, of course, quite different, the system of ordering devotional life around fixed times of prayer, which mark the boundaries of the daily cycle, is similar in both traditions, reflecting an analogous sense of the importance of regular and disciplined devotion. Guru Nanak prescribed prayers at amrit vela (the ambrosial hours before dawn), at midday, and at dusk, a pattern that, while not identical to the five Islamic prayer times, reflects a similar understanding of the importance of regular, disciplined devotion as a way of orienting the entire day toward God. The emphasis on congregational worship is another aspect in which these two traditions are related to each other. Guru Nanak developed the sangat (congregation) as one of the basic institutions of Sikh practice-the community of spiritual seekers who come together to sing hymns, offer prayers, and listen to the Guru’s Word together. Sufi tradition of the sama, the gathering for devotional music and spiritual recollection, is one model of this kind of communal devotion, the Friday prayers of Islam another.[55] While the Sikh sangat has its own distinctive character, the underlying principle that communal worship has a transformative power that private devotion alone cannot achieve is shared across these traditions.[56]

Music played a central role in the spiritual vision of Guru Nanak, embodied by the tradition of kirtan and the singing of hymns, and is felt in the Sufi practice. The Sufi tradition of sama made devotional music a central part of spiritual life, and the Punjabi Sufi setting was full of musical traditions.[57] Guru Nanak’s choice to express his revelations through song and to employ music as his primary vehicle for divine transmission, was made against a background of an environment in which music had already been established as one of the primary mediums with which one could deal with the divine transmission, reflects an environment in which music had already been established as a powerful medium for encountering with the divine, an environment shaped in significant part by the Sufi tradition.[58] One of the most distinctive concepts in the theology of Guru Nanak is hukam, the divine order or will that is pervasive and governs all of creation. According to Guru Nanak, everything that exists does so in and through God’s hukam, and the fundamental human spiritual task is to align oneself with this divine will rather than resist it with ego and self-assertion.[59] The concept is among the first invoked in the opening lines of the Japji Sahib, “By His command, bodies are created; His command cannot be described. By His command souls come into being, and at His command glory and greatness are obtained.” The resonance between Guru Nanak’s concept of hukam and the Islamic concept of the will of God (irada Allahi) or divine decree (qadar) is striking.[60] Islam’s stress on submission to the will of God (in fact, the word “Islam” itself is derived from an Arabic root, s-l-m - meaning submission or peace) finds a powerful echo in Guru Nanak’s teachings on hukam.[61] Both traditions see the fundamental human problem as the attempt to resist or override the divine will through ego, pride, and self-assertion, and both see the solution as a form of surrender or alignment with that will.[62] The term “Islam,” which means submission to God, captures one important aspect of what Guru Nanak also teaches.[63] For both traditions, the highest human achievement is not independence from God, but the surest possible surrender to God, though the two traditions differ considerably on how they see this surrender and what it means for religious practice and community life.[64]

In Sufi thought, raza (divine will or pleasure), is similar to Guru Nanak’s idea of hukam. Sufi teachers emphasise raza as both an attribute of God and a spiritual state that is to be developed. It is a state of contentment with whatever God wills; it is not passive resignation, but it is active acceptance of the true reality.[65] This is very close to the description by Guru Nanak of the highest spiritual state, which is being in harmony with hukam, not fighting against it, but flowing with divine order like a river flows to the ocean.[66] The theological parallel supports the argument in the section on Monotheism that these two traditions share the understanding of God’s absolute sovereignty.

After discussing the extent to which Guru Nanak was influenced by and resonated with Islamic thought, it is equally important to discuss the extent to which Guru Nanak was critical of Islam.[[118] Guru Nanak was not an uncritical admirer of Islam; he was a spiritual visionary with his own distinct revelation. He studied Islamic practice with the same scrutiny with which he studied Hindu practice. His criticisms of Islam, which are found in the Guru Granth Sahib, point out the disparity between external religious observance and inner spiritual realities.[67] He challenges the performance of Islam by the qazis and mullahs, who are mechanical and self-serving, who lack the inner transformation that true and genuine submission to God. In a famous passage, he states: “Let mercy be your mosque, faith your prayer-mat, and righteous conduct your Quran”(GGS, 140). The statement is not a rejection of the mosque. Instead, it provides a radical re-interpretation that calls for outer forms to be spiritually imbued with inner truth to have spiritual meaning.[68] Guru Nanak had also spoken against violence in the name of Islam.[69] In his writings on the invasion of Babur on the Indian subcontinent, there is an expression of grief and outrage at the suffering of innocent men, women and children as a result of conquest.[70] Guru Nanak does not blame Islam itself. Instead, he calls the violence injustice which cannot coexist with true submission to God.[71] His willingness to criticise the Muslim rulers and religious authorities demonstrates Guru Nanak’s independent spirit and the fact that he was not willing for respect for a tradition to remain silent critique of a tradition’s abuses. He criticized Muslims who discriminated based on caste or social status (which had crept into Islam in the Indian subcontinent, although the religion officially supported equality, despite the religion’s formal egalitarianism). He also criticised Hindu and Muslim religious leaders who used their positions for personal gain, retaining outward appearance but forgetting the substance of the religion.[72] His criticisms do not detract from Guru Nanak’s respect for Islam as a genuine spiritual tradition; they are the expression of the common “prophetic critique from within” found in great religious movements. This shows deep involvement with Islam, not rejection. Meaningful critique comes from a measure of genuine respect and Guru Nanak’s criticisms of Islamic practice are the criticisms of one who has engaged deeply with Islam’s own exemplary ideals and called it to live up to them. Perhaps the most celebrated and debated statement attributed Guru Nanak is his declaration: Na koi Hindu, na koi Musalman, “There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim.[73] The phrase is found in various forms in the Janamsakhi tradition and has been interpreted in various ways, a correct understanding of which is the key to understanding Guru Nanak’s relationship with Islam. A common interpretation is that Guru Nanak meant that the differences between the Hindus and Muslims are ultimately irrelevant. In the eyes of God, there is no Hindu or Muslim, only human beings, who are accountable and judged by their deeds. This interpretation makes the statement an egalitarian pronouncement, to rise above religious tribalism and insists on a common humanity before God.[74] A deeper interpretation takes the statement to be a critique of the discrepancy between the ideals professed by both traditions and the reality of how they are lived. Guru Nanak essentially said: “I look around, and I see Hindus, but I do not find people truly living the path of the Hindu tradition; I observe Muslims, but I do not find people truly following the path of Islam.” The labels are abundant, but the inner reality they represent is scarce. On this reading, the statement is not a rejection of each tradition but an appeal to its adherents to live their faith authentically.

A third interpretation, according to some Sikh theological commentary, sees the statement as looking beyond the two traditions to a universal spiritual truth that is being expressed by each to its best ability. Guru Nanak does not reject the two traditions. Rather, he says the truth they are pursuing is larger than each of them and that he has found a way to that truth that does not require membership in either camp. All three interpretations point to elements of Guru Nanak’s view. What is clear is that his declaration is not a dismissal of Islam. Instead, it presupposes a deep involvement with Islam: one had to know a tradition well to find what a tradition truly expected of its adherents, and to discern where it had fallen short in practice. The statement is from someone who has closely studied Islam and identified both genuine spiritual treasures as well as the same human failures to live up to ideals that he also found in the Hindu tradition.

The Islamic influences on Guru Nanak did not stop with him but continued to influence the early Sikh community (panth) in important ways.^[143] The Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred scripture of Sikhism, which was completed by Guru Arjan Dev in 1604, contains compositions not only by Sikh Gurus but of several Muslim Saints, and Sufi poets.[75] The inclusion of the Muslim voice in the Sikh scripture is a remarkable legacy of Guru Nanak’s vision, a concrete embodiment of his conviction that the truth of God is not confined to any single religious tradition.[76] The composers included from the Muslim tradition represent different strands of the Islamic spirituality in Punjab, Baba Farid Ganjshakar, a Chishti Sufi saint; Bhikhan Shah, a Sufi; Satta and Balwand, musicians of the mirasi community.[77] Alongside with them inclusion of the Hindu bhakti saints and the Sikh Gurus creates a scripture a material in real since, a monument of interfaith spiritual dialogue; a living embodiment of the vision that Guru Nanak had expressed in his life and teachings. The architecture and institutions of the early Sikh community also reveal fascinating Islamic influences.[78] The institution of langar, for instance, also derives from the Sufi tradition of providing food to all visitors, regardless of background, which is shared at many dargahs, which became a distinctly Sikh institution and has taken on its own theological grounding.[79] The focus on simple service (seva) as an act of spiritual merit is reminiscent of Islam’s focus on sadaqa (charitable giving) as a function of faith. The absence of an ordained priesthood in Sikhism is reminiscent of both the Hindu Bhakti traditions and an Islamic sensibility, as previously noted

After Guru Nanak, his successors continued his engagement with Islam, involving both dialogue and conflict. The fifth Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, was martyred by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1606, a consequential watershed event in Sikh-Muslim relations. Even as Sikhism was well on its way to establishing its own identity and also taking on a martial stance, in part due to Mughal oppression, the Islamic influences in its core teachings remained interwoven in the Guru Granth Sahib, and also in Sikh devotional practices.

Scholars of various generations have examined the Islamic influence on Guru Nanak across multiple generations, with their own focus and conclusions.[80] Western orientalist scholars in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries frequently over-emphasised the Islamic side of the coin, and presented Sikhism as a mixture of Islam and Hinduism, which is something Sikh theology rigorously rejects [81] The recent studies are more balanced and recognise the Islamic dimension, while retaining the uniqueness, originality while maintaining respect for the integrity and originality of Guru Nanak’s revelation.[82] W.H. McLeod, the most influential Western scholar of Sikh history in the twentieth century, argued that Guru Nanak’s thought emerged primarily from within the Sant tradition of northern India, a tradition of vernacular devotional spirituality that itself drew from both Hindu and Muslim sources.[83] McLeod’s work, even though controversial within some Sikh circles due to its critical approach to the Janamsakhi biographical tradition, provided a rigorous historical framework for understanding the intellectual context of Guru Nanak. [84] Harjot Oberoi’s work on the development of Sikh identity emphasised the malleability of religious boundaries in Punjab before colonial rule, a malleability that developed the Sikh community in its infancy and its relationship with Islam.[85] His analysis provides an explanation as to how Guru Nanak could be able to engage with Islamic thought and practice on a profound level without his contemporaries considering it as contradictory. Sikh scholars like Bhai Vir Singh, Teja Singh, and lately Nikky -Guninder Kaur Singh have stressed the originality and the divine inspiration of Guru Nanak’s revelation, however, keeping in view the cultural and intellectual background in which it occurred. [86]The dominant Sikh theological school of thought is that, while Guru Nanak was conversant in Islam and engaged with it deeply, his revelation as not from it derived from it, rather, it came directly from God and its parallels with Islamic thought convey the universal nature of divine truth as opposed to the reliance on any human tradition.

This theological contention is not merely defensive in character; it is due to a real insight into the nature of spiritual revelation. Throughout history, the greatest religious visionaries have been fully embedded within their cultural contexts while transcending them. Guru Nanak’s involvement with Islam does not compromise the originality of his contribution, it enhances our understanding of the comprehensiveness of his spiritual vision and the courage he demonstrated in dealing with the complex religious world in which he lived.



Guru Nanak’s relationship with Islam was one of profound involvement and deep engagement, critical appreciation, shared vision and genuine encounter. He was born into a world steeped in Islamic culture and Sufi spirituality, had been raised in close relationships with Muslims, travelled to the most sacred and holiest sites in the Islamic world, included Muslim voices in his spiritual community and articulated a theology that resonates with Islamic teachings on divine unity, human equality, the centrality of remembering God and the importance of aligning human will with the divine. At the same time, Guru Nanak wasn’t a Muslim; he wasn’t a synthesiser of Hinduism and Islam, and he wasn’t simply a product of his cultural environment. He received a revelation that he understood as coming from God, that is, a revelation that at its base is consonant with the deepest insights of both Hinduism and Islam, yet one that transcends both in significant ways.[87] His famous declaration that there is no Hindu and no Muslim wasn’t a rejection of both traditions, but an invitation to both to discover the deeper reality to which their traditions point at their best.

The Islamic influences upon Guru Nanak are real, significant and historically documentable. They are found at many different levels: personal (his friendship with Mardana and other Muslims); theological (his radical monotheism and doctrine of divine will); spiritual (Sufi parallels in Naam Simran and the concept of the destruction of the ego); ethical (the egalitarian rejection of caste); and devotional (structural parallels in prayer and communal worship). Taken together, these influences reveal a thinker who engaged with Islam with unusual depth, seriousness and respect. But perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from Guru Nanak’s engagement with Islam is not about influence or derivation at all; it is about the possibility of genuine encounter across religious boundaries.[ Guru Nanak demonstrated by his life and teaching that it is possible to deeply engage with another tradition, and find genuine spiritual treasure there, respect and honour its best insights and yet be fully ourselves, fully committed to our own revelation and vision. In an era in which religious boundaries were often policed with great violence, and in which the Punjab itself would be a site of repeated communal conflict, Guru Nanak’s life stands as a testimony to a different possibility: that of respectful, curious, loving engagement across the boundaries that divide human beings from one another.

The relationship between Sikhism and Islam, begun by Guru Nanak’s extraordinary openness to the Islamic world and its greatest spiritual teachers, remains one of the most fascinating and instructive stories in the history of world religion.7 The relationship between Sikhism and Islam challenges both traditions to live up to their highest ideals and offers a model of interfaith encounter that is still relevant and urgent to this day. In a world still marked by religious conflict and mutual misunderstanding, Guru Nanak’s life and teachings remind us that the deepest spiritual insights often emerge not in isolation but in dialogue, in the creative encounter between different traditions that, at their best, are all pointing toward the same ineffable reality.





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[1] This essay expands on the thesis that Guru Nanak’s theology was shaped by a dynamic interplay with the Islamic milieu of 15th-century Punjab. For a foundational biography, see W.H. McLeod, *Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968).
[2] Sikh theology posits that the Guru’s revelation is Apauruseya (impersonal or authorless), similar to the concept of the Vedas in orthodox Hinduism, but distinct in its content. See J.S. Grewal, The New Cambridge History of India: The Sikhs of the Punjab (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 15.
[3] On the distinction between historical influence and theological derivation, see Harjot Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 45-68.

[4] The geographic location of Punjab as the gateway to India made it a melting pot of cultures. See Khushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs, Vol. 1: 1469–1839 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), 12-18.
[5] The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) had established Persian and Islamic administrative practices in the region long before Nanak’s birth.
[6] For the spread of Sufism in Punjab, see R.M. Chopra, The Sufis and the Sikh Gurus, in The Sikh Review 41, no. 3 (1993): 23-30.
[7] Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar is the earliest recorded Punjabi poet. His verses reflect a deep sense of divine longing. See Guru Granth Sahib (hereafter GGS), Angs 1377–1384.
[8] Mehta Kalu’s employment by Daulat Khan Lodhi, the Muslim governor of Lahore, placed the Nanak family in close proximity to the Islamic administrative elite.
[9] Bhai Mardana’s role is chronicled extensively in the Janamsakhi literature. See W.H. McLeod, Early Sikh Tradition: A Study of the Janamsakhis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 78-82.
[10] Babar Vani is found in the Guru Granth Sahib (Angs 360, 417, 722-723). It is a firsthand poetic account of the devastation caused by Babur’s invasion.
[11] Nanak’s critique is ethical, not theological; he laments the suffering inflicted by the kings of blood but does not condemn Islam as a faith. See GGS, Ang 360.

[12] The Sant tradition combined elements of Vaishnavism and Shaivism with the Islamic rejection of caste. See Charlotte Vaudeville, A Weaver Named Kabir (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993).
[13] Kabir’s verses included in the Guru Granth Sahib total 226 padas and 237 shaloks, indicating a high degree of theological alignment.
[14] See the Sikh Rahit Maryada (Code of Conduct) regarding the status of the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal living Guru.
[15] See Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh, The Feminine Principle in the Sikh Vision of the Transcendent (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 21.
[16] McLeod, Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion, 199-200.
[17] Guru Nanak uses terms like Allah, Khuda, and Pir frequently in his bani, alongside Hindu terms like Ram, Hari, and Thakur.
[18] The Guru Granth Sahib remains the primary source; the Janamsakhis serve as secondary, interpretive texts. See Pashaura Singh, The Bhagats of the Guru Granth Sahib (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
[19] The Bala and Puratan Janamsakhis contain hagiographic elements intended to establish Nanak’s supremacy over other religious figures. McLeod, Early Sikh Tradition, 105.
[20] . The Shahada is the first of the Five Pillars of Islam. This parallel is structural and theological.
[21] Tawhid is the absolute monotheism of Islam, denying any partners to God.
[22] The 99 Names of Allah (Asma ul Husna) are a core concept in Islamic theology. See Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 119.
[23] This iconoclasm aligns Sikhism with the Abrahamic traditions in its rejection of murti puja (idol worship).
[24] Saguna Bhakti (devotion to God with attributes) and Nirguna Bhakti (devotion to the abstract absolute) are currents within Hinduism that Nanak synthesized.
[25] The concept of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being) advocated by Ibn Arabi posits a similar immanence, though it remains controversial in orthodox Islam. Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions, 265.
[26] Guru Nanak states, The Lord is in the self, the self is in the Lord (GGS, Ang 1154).
[27] Sufism in India was influenced by Vedanta, creating a unique syncretism. See K.A. Nizami, Tarikh-i-Mashaikh-i-Chisht (Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1955).
[28] *Ma’rifa is distinguished from ilm (book learning); it is esoteric, experiential knowledge.
[29] Dhikr involves the rhythmic repetition of divine names or prayers.
[30] For example, the metaphor of the moth and the flame appears in both traditions
[31] Guru Granth Sahib, Angs 1377–1384 contains 4 hymns and 130 shaloks by Baba Farid.
[32] The compilation of the Adi Granth by Guru Arjan in 1604 institutionalized this inclusivity. See Pashaura Singh, The Guru Granth Sahib: Canon, Meaning and Authority (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
[33] The Sri Guru Granth Sahib treats the Bhagats (including Baba Farid) as articulating the same divine truth as the Gurus.
[34] GGS, Ang 918: Through the Name, one is enraptured and delighted.
[35] See G.S. Talib, Guru Nanak: His Life and Teachings (Chandigarh: Unistar Book, 1989), 210.
[36] Fana signifies the annihilation of the self in God, often followed by baqa (subsistence in God).
[37] Guru Nanak states, Haumai (ego) is a chronic disease; only the Name cures it (GGS, Ang 466).
[38] GGS, Ang 1002: I am a sacrifice to my Husband Lord; I long for the Blessed Vision of His Darshan.
[39] The Pir-Murid relationship is central to Sufi orders (tariqas).
[40] The Guru in Sikhism is the Light Divine (Jot), not merely a human teacher.
[41] Mardana was born to a Mirasi family in Rai Bhoi di Talwandi.(Now in Pakistan)
[42] The Janamsakhis depict Mardana as constantly questioning Nanak, allowing Nanak to explicate his philosophy.
[43] The journey to the west (Mecca) is detailed in the Puratan Janamsakhi.

[44] This miracle story (karamat) serves a theological point: God’s omnipresence.
[45] This echoes the Quranic verse: Wherever you turn, there is the Face of God (2:115).
[46] The Baghdad shrine inscription refers to Baba Nanak Faqir"
[47] The inscription’s translation is debated, but it generally attests to the Guru’s visit. See Sir Max Arthur Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, Vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909), 219.
[48] Caste (varna) was the primary social structure of Hindu India.
[49] The Islamic concept of Ummah theoretically transcends ethnic and caste lines.
[50] In practice, South Asian Muslims developed stratified groups (Ashraf vs. Ajlaf), but the theological ideal remained equality.
[51] Nanak declared caste to be meaningless in the afterlife. GGS, Ang 1330.
[52] The Quran warns against prayer being mere motion (107:4-5).
[53] The Hadith states: Actions are judged by intentions.
[54] Nitnem consists of reciting specific banis (compositions) three times a day.
[55] Sama is controversial in some orthodox Sufi circles but central to Chishti practice
[56] GGS, Ang 72: In the Sangat, the Lord is found.
[57] The Qawwali tradition, popularized by Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, is the most famous form of Sufi
[58] Guru Nanak set his poetry to traditional Ragas (Indian musical modes), likely adapted by Bhai Mardana.
[59] GGS, Ang 1: Hukami hovan akar.
[60] Islam teaches that God has decreed all things (Al-Qadar).
[61] *See section on Monotheism for the connection between Tawhid and Ik Onkar.
[62] The human problem is asserting one’s own will (Haumai) against God’s (Hukam).
[63] The word Muslim in Gurbani is often redefined to mean one who submits to God’s Will rather than a religious label. GGS, Ang 140.
[64] While Islam emphasies submission , Sikhism emphasises acceptance (Bhana) and harmony (Raza).
[65] This is the state of Ridwan in Sufism.
[66] GGS, Ang 143: Dancing like water, I am pleasing to my Lord.
[67] GGS, Ang 661: The Qazi reads his book, but he knows nothing.
[68] This is the essence of Nirgun (attribute-less) spirituality, valuing the inner over the outer.
[69] See Babar Vani reference in the Introduction.
[70] GGS, Ang 722: They sing the praises of the Muslim rulers, but they have forgotten the Merciful Lord.

[71] Nanak laments the bride (Punjab) ravaged by the marriage party (Babur’s army).
[72] GGS, Ang 95: They wear the robes of religious leaders, but inside they are wolves.
[73] This declaration is found in the Puratan Janamsakhi.
[74] GGS, Ang 8: First, Allah created the Light; then, by His Creative Power, He made all mortal beings.
[75] The Guru Granth Sahib contains 5894 hymns from diverse authors.
[76] Pashaura Singh, The Guru Granth Sahib, 85.
[77] The inclusion of Shlokas of Sheikh Farid is the most prominent example
[78] The Gurdwara architecture evolved over time, but early Sangats likely met in simple dwellings, not temples.
[79] Sufi hospitality (mehman-navazi) is legendary.
[80] Early Western historians like Trumpp viewed Sikhism through a Christian lens, often dismissing it as syncretic.
[81] Ernest Trumpp, Adi Granth (London: Trubner & Co., 1877).
[82] Modern scholars like J.S. Grewal and Hew McLeod have corrected these biases.
[83] McLeod, Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion, 1-15.
[84] McLeod distinguishes between the historical Nanak and the Nanak of faith.
[85] Oberoi, Construction of Religious Boundaries.
[86] Bhai Vir Singh (1872-1957) revitalised Sikh literature and emphasised the Guru’s divinity.
[87] The Mool Mantar is identical to neither the Shahada nor the Gayatri Mantra.